L'accord de Cotonou et les contradictions du droit international : l'intégration des règles de l'Organisation mondiale du commerce et des droits humains dans la coopération ACP-CE

"Thèse présentée à la Faculté des études supérieures de l'Université de Montréal en vue de l'obtention du grade de Docteur en Droit (LL.D.) Et à A la faculté de droit Jean Monnet en vue de l'obtention du doctorat en Sciences Juridiques"Ce travail poursuit deux objectifs principaux: un objectif juridique et un objectif d'ordre épistémologique. Il s'agit tout d'abord de rendre compte d'un point de vue juridique et empirique les implications du passage des Conventions de Lomé à l'Accord de Cotonou. Nous examinons les implications de la redéfinition des accords de coopération sur les politiques de développement des Etats ACP, et plus précisément l'évolution des obligations à la charge des deux groupes de pays dans les domaines du commerce international et des droits humains. Dans un premier temps, nous montrons que la non réciprocité des obligations commerciales entre les deux groupes de pays qui caractérisait les Conventions de Lomé est définitivement écartée au profit d'obligations réciproques et identiques pour les deux groupes de pays en conformité des dispositions de l'Organisation mondiale du commerce. Le principe de l'inégalité compensatrice est abandonné au profit de la libéralisation commerciale. Le traitement spécial et différencié, pourtant consacré dans l'Accord instituant l'OMC, apparaît ainsi dépourvu d'une grande partie de son intérêt. Dans un deuxième temps, ce sont les obligations relatives au respect des droits humains qui retiennent notre attention. L'élargissement du champ de la coopération à des questions considérées depuis l'indépendance comme des questions relevant de la compétence interne des Etats, se traduit par une remise en cause de la souveraineté des Etats ACP. Le principe de non-ingérence dans les affaires intérieures, héritage de la décolonisation, est ainsi remis en question. Mais surtout, nous établissons que tous les droits humains ne sont pas concernés par cet élargissement. Le deuxième objectif de ce travail est d'ordre épistémologique. Il VIse à démontrer le caractère heuristique d'une analyse constructiviste du droit pour la compréhension de notre objet mais aussi l'intérêt de ce type d'approche au regard des débats qui structurent le champ disciplinaire sur les rapports entre les droits humains et le droit du commerce international. A travers l'étude de l'Accord de Cotonou, nous tentons de mettre en lumière le fait que les droits humains et règles de l'OMC n'évoluent ni de manière complémentaire ni séparément et qu'il ne suffit pas de raisonner en termes de «rattrapage» et de correctifs ponctuels afin d'harmoniser ces deux champs de règles. En conclusion nous constatons que cinq ans ont suffi aux institutions européennes pour réaliser un véritable «exploit» politique. Elles ont réussi à renverser l'ensemble des obligations économiques qui étaient à la charge des deux groupes de pays, à supprimer les protocoles produits en faveur des ACP, à faire adopter un programme de libéralisation commercial qui va au-delà de tout ce qui a été négocié jusqu'ici au niveau multilatéral et ce, sous couvert de mise en conformité avec les dispositions de l'ÜMC. Enfin, l'DE a fragilisé le Groupe ACP en le morcelant en six régions, dont certaines n'ont aucune existence institutionnelle, avec lesquelles elle négocie actuellement un vaste programme de libéralisation commerciale. En ce qui a trait au respect des droits humains on constate qu'à la différence des normes de l'OMC qui font l'objet de négociations permanentes et structurent le cadre institutionnel et le fond de la coopération, le respect des droits humains ne fait pas ou peu l'objet de négociations entre les deux groupes de pays. De plus, s'ils occupent désormais une place centrale dans le discours des institutions communautaires en charge du développement, le seul mécanisme mis en oeuvre pour sanctionner leurs violations est utilisé d'une manière partiale et sélective. Seule l'DE peut l'utiliser et elle ne choisit de le faire que quand la sanction infligée à un pays ACP ne met pas en péril ses propres intérêts. Bref, l'intégration des droits humains dans le cadre de la coopération contribue davantage aujourd'hui à une remise en cause de l'égalité souveraine des Etats qu'à la promotion des Pactes de 1966, au respect des normes de l'OIT ou du droit des réfugiés.This work pursues two aims. The first one is to seek to understand and to explain the stakes and the implications of the transformation of the Lomé convention into the Cotonou agreement, from a constructive approach of law. It is then a question of contributing to the legal thought concerning the degree of complimentary and coherence between the two fields of the internationallaw, human rights and international trade law. The second aim led us to look into the question of the real integration, which proved to be selective, of the standards coming from these two fields of law into the Cotonou Agreement. In the cooperation, the breach of human rights, as the OMC standards, is appreciated in a subjective and unilateral way by the E.U. Far from contributing to a complementary approach, the cooperation reinforces the dichotomy between these two fields of internationallaw, by treating them on a hierarchical basis

What drives Senegalese migration to Europe? The role of economic restructuring, labor demand, and the multiplier effect of networks

Background: International migration from Sub-Saharan Africa to Europe is poorly understood. Furthermore, existing studies pay insufficient attention to the links between the micro-level factors and political, social, and economic processes in both origin and destination areas. Here we integrate insights from institutional approaches in migration and development research with perspectives that highlight the role of labor market and social capital. Objective: We analyze the contextual and individual-level determinants of migration from Senegal to France, Italy, and Spain since the mid-1970s. We examine the following hypotheses: (1) In Senegal, the deterioration of living conditions and heightened economic insecurity have created the conditions for increasing out-migration propensities. (2) In Europe, labor market restructuring has increased job opportunities in particular places and job niches. (3) In facilitating access of Senegalese migrants to jobs in Europe, social networks have linked these two processes. (4) The conjunction of periods of strong labor demand and the availability of personal networks in Europe creates a boosting effect on the migration probabilities of the Senegalese to Europe. Methods: We use event history models to analyze life course data from the Migrations between Africa and Europe survey (2008). Results: Our empirical results concerning both individual socioeconomic indicators and contextual indicators provide consistent support for the four hypotheses proposed. Conclusions: The initiation and expansion of migration between Senegal and Europe stem from the simultaneous presence of several key factors at origin and destination, including processes of economic restructuring and the mutually reinforcing process of social capital formation and changing labor market conditions. These factors are historically contingent, but they may have a wider relevance in the explanation of migration from developing countries to developed countries

Evading innate immunity in nonviral mRNA delivery : don't shoot the messenger

In de field of non-viral gene therapy, in vitro transcribed (IVT) mRNA has emerged as a promising tool for the delivery of genetic information. Over the past few years it has become widely known the introduction of IVT mRNA into mammalian cells elicits an innate immune response which has favored mRNA use towards immunotherapeutic vaccination strategies. However, for non-immunotherapy related applications this intrinsic immune-stimulatory activity directly interferes with the aimed therapeutic outcome, as it can seriously compromise the expression of the desired protein. This review presents an overview of the immune-related obstacles that limit mRNA advance for non-immunotherapy related applications

Spinal involvement in mucopolysaccharidosis IVA (Morquio-Brailsford or Morquio A syndrome): presentation, diagnosis and management.

Mucopolysaccharidosis IVA (MPS IVA), also known as Morquio-Brailsford or Morquio A syndrome, is a lysosomal storage disorder caused by a deficiency of the enzyme N-acetyl-galactosamine-6-sulphate sulphatase (GALNS). MPS IVA is multisystemic but manifests primarily as a progressive skeletal dysplasia. Spinal involvement is a major cause of morbidity and mortality in MPS IVA. Early diagnosis and timely treatment of problems involving the spine are critical in preventing or arresting neurological deterioration and loss of function. This review details the spinal manifestations of MPS IVA and describes the tools used to diagnose and monitor spinal involvement. The relative utility of radiography, computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) for the evaluation of cervical spine instability, stenosis, and cord compression is discussed. Surgical interventions, anaesthetic considerations, and the use of neurophysiological monitoring during procedures performed under general anaesthesia are reviewed. Recommendations for regular radiological imaging and neurologic assessments are presented, and the need for a more standardized approach for evaluating and managing spinal involvement in MPS IVA is addressed

Constitutivism

A brief explanation and overview of constitutivism

The twilight of the Liberal Social Contract? On the Reception of Rawlsian Political Liberalism

This chapter discusses the Rawlsian project of public reason, or public justification-based 'political' liberalism, and its reception. After a brief philosophical rather than philological reconstruction of the project, the chapter revolves around a distinction between idealist and realist responses to it. Focusing on political liberalism’s critical reception illuminates an overarching question: was Rawls’s revival of a contractualist approach to liberal legitimacy a fruitful move for liberalism and/or the social contract tradition? The last section contains a largely negative answer to that question. Nonetheless the chapter's conclusion shows that the research programme of political liberalism provided and continues to provide illuminating insights into the limitations of liberal contractualism, especially under conditions of persistent and radical diversity. The programme is, however, less receptive to challenges to do with the relative decline of the power of modern states

Fungal Endophyte Diversity in Sarracenia

Fungal endophytes were isolated from 4 species of the carnivorous pitcher plant genus Sarracenia: S. minor, S. oreophila, S. purpurea, and S. psittacina. Twelve taxa of fungi, 8 within the Ascomycota and 4 within the Basidiomycota, were identified based on PCR amplification and sequencing of the internal transcribed spacer sequences of nuclear ribosomal DNA (ITS rDNA) with taxonomic identity assigned using the NCBI nucleotide megablast search tool. Endophytes are known to produce a large number of metabolites, some of which may contribute to the protection and survival of the host. We speculate that endophyte-infected Sarracenia may benefit from their fungal associates by their influence on nutrient availability from within pitchers and, possibly, by directly influencing the biota within pitchers

Diversity and Evolution of Sensor Histidine Kinases in Eukaryotes

Histidine kinases (HKs) are primary sensor proteins that act in cell signaling pathways generically referred to as "two component systems" (TCSs). TCSs are among the most widely distributed transduction systems used by both prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms to detect and respond to a broad range of environmental cues. The structure and distribution of HK proteins are now well documented in prokaryotes but information is still fragmentary for eukaryotes. Here, we have taken advantage of recent genomic resources to explore the structural diversity and the phylogenetic distribution of HKs in the prominent eukaryotic supergroups. Searches of the genomes of 67 eukaryotic species spread evenly throughout the phylogenetic tree of life identified 748 predicted HK proteins. Independent phylogenetic analyses of predicted HK proteins were carried out for each of the major eukaryotic supergroups. This allowed most of the compiled sequences to be categorised into previously described HK groups. Beyond the phylogenetic analysis of eukaryotic HKs, this study revealed some interesting findings: (i) characterisation of some previously undescribed eukaryotic HK groups with predicted functions putatively related to physiological traits; (ii) discovery of HK groups that were previously believed to be restricted to a single kingdom in additional supergroups and (iii) indications that some evolutionary paths have led to the appearance, transfer, duplication, and loss of HK genes in some phylogenetic lineages. This study provides an unprecedented overview of the structure and distribution of HKs in the Eukaryota and represents a first step towards deciphering the evolution of TCS signaling in living organisms

microRNA-Mediated Messenger RNA Deadenylation Contributes to Translational Repression in Mammalian Cells

Animal microRNAs (miRNAs) typically regulate gene expression by binding to partially complementary target sites in the 3′ untranslated region (UTR) of messenger RNA (mRNA) reducing its translation and stability. They also commonly induce shortening of the mRNA 3′ poly(A) tail, which contributes to their mRNA decay promoting function. The relationship between miRNA-mediated deadenylation and translational repression has been less clear. Using transfection of reporter constructs carrying three imperfectly matching let-7 target sites in the 3′ UTR into mammalian cells we observe rapid target mRNA deadenylation that precedes measureable translational repression by endogenous let-7 miRNA. Depleting cells of the argonaute co-factors RCK or TNRC6A can impair let-7-mediated repression despite ongoing mRNA deadenylation, indicating that deadenylation alone is not sufficient to effect full repression. Nevertheless, the magnitude of translational repression by let-7 is diminished when the target reporter lacks a poly(A) tail. Employing an antisense strategy to block deadenylation of target mRNA with poly(A) tail also partially impairs translational repression. On the one hand, these experiments confirm that tail removal by deadenylation is not strictly required for translational repression. On the other hand they show directly that deadenylation can augment miRNA-mediated translational repression in mammalian cells beyond stimulating mRNA decay. Taken together with published work, these results suggest a dual role of deadenylation in miRNA function: it contributes to translational repression as well as mRNA decay and is thus critically involved in establishing the quantitatively appropriate physiological response to miRNAs

The E-ELT first light spectrograph HARMONI: capabilities and modes

Trabajo presentado en SPIE Astronomical Telescopes, celebrado en San Diego (California), del 26 de junio al 1 de julio de 2016HARMONI is the E-ELT's first light visible and near-infrared integral field spectrograph. It will provide four different spatial scales, ranging from coarse spaxels of 60 × 30 mas best suited for seeing limited observations, to 4 mas spaxels that Nyquist sample the diffraction limited point spread function of the E-ELT at near-infrared wavelengths. Each spaxel scale may be combined with eleven spectral settings, that provide a range of spectral resolving powers (R 3500, 7500 and 20000) and instantaneous wavelength coverage spanning the 0.5 - 2.4 ¿m wavelength range of the instrument. In autumn 2015, the HARMONI project started the Preliminary Design Phase, following signature of the contract to design, build, test and commission the instrument, signed between the European Southern Observatory and the UK Science and Technology Facilities Council. Crucially, the contract also includes the preliminary design of the HARMONI Laser Tomographic Adaptive Optics system. The instrument's technical specifications were finalized in the period leading up to contract signature. In this paper, we report on the first activity carried out during preliminary design, defining the baseline architecture for the system, and the trade-off studies leading up to the choice of baseline