International Coercion, Emulation and Policy Diffusion: Market-Oriented Infrastructure Reforms, 1977-1999

Why do some countries adopt market-oriented reforms such as deregulation, privatization and liberalization of competition in their infrastructure industries while others do not? Why did the pace of adoption accelerate in the 1990s? Building on neo-institutional theory in sociology, we argue that the domestic adoption of market-oriented reforms is strongly influenced by international pressures of coercion and emulation. We find robust support for these arguments with an event-history analysis of the determinants of reform in the telecommunications and electricity sectors of as many as 205 countries and territories between 1977 and 1999. Our results also suggest that the coercive effect of multilateral lending from the IMF, the World Bank or Regional Development Banks is increasing over time, a finding that is consistent with anecdotal evidence that multilateral organizations have broadened the scope of the “conditionality” terms specifying market-oriented reforms imposed on borrowing countries. We discuss the possibility that, by pressuring countries into policy reform, cross-national coercion and emulation may not produce ideal outcomes.http://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/40099/3/wp713.pd

Contributions of mean and shape of blood pressure distribution to worldwide trends and variations in raised blood pressure: A pooled analysis of 1018 population-based measurement studies with 88.6 million participants

© The Author(s) 2018. Background: Change in the prevalence of raised blood pressure could be due to both shifts in the entire distribution of blood pressure (representing the combined effects of public health interventions and secular trends) and changes in its high-blood-pressure tail (representing successful clinical interventions to control blood pressure in the hypertensive population). Our aim was to quantify the contributions of these two phenomena to the worldwide trends in the prevalence of raised blood pressure. Methods: We pooled 1018 population-based studies with blood pressure measurements on 88.6 million participants from 1985 to 2016. We first calculated mean systolic blood pressure (SBP), mean diastolic blood pressure (DBP) and prevalence of raised blood pressure by sex and 10-year age group from 20-29 years to 70-79 years in each study, taking into account complex survey design and survey sample weights, where relevant. We used a linear mixed effect model to quantify the association between (probittransformed) prevalence of raised blood pressure and age-group- and sex-specific mean blood pressure. We calculated the contributions of change in mean SBP and DBP, and of change in the prevalence-mean association, to the change in prevalence of raised blood pressure. Results: In 2005-16, at the same level of population mean SBP and DBP, men and women in South Asia and in Central Asia, the Middle East and North Africa would have the highest prevalence of raised blood pressure, and men and women in the highincome Asia Pacific and high-income Western regions would have the lowest. In most region-sex-age groups where the prevalence of raised blood pressure declined, one half or more of the decline was due to the decline in mean blood pressure. Where prevalence of raised blood pressure has increased, the change was entirely driven by increasing mean blood pressure, offset partly by the change in the prevalence-mean association. Conclusions: Change in mean blood pressure is the main driver of the worldwide change in the prevalence of raised blood pressure, but change in the high-blood-pressure tail of the distribution has also contributed to the change in prevalence, especially in older age groups

Repositioning of the global epicentre of non-optimal cholesterol

High blood cholesterol is typically considered a feature of wealthy western countries(1,2). However, dietary and behavioural determinants of blood cholesterol are changing rapidly throughout the world(3) and countries are using lipid-lowering medications at varying rates. These changes can have distinct effects on the levels of high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol and non-HDL cholesterol, which have different effects on human health(4,5). However, the trends of HDL and non-HDL cholesterol levels over time have not been previously reported in a global analysis. Here we pooled 1,127 population-based studies that measured blood lipids in 102.6 million individuals aged 18 years and older to estimate trends from 1980 to 2018 in mean total, non-HDL and HDL cholesterol levels for 200 countries. Globally, there was little change in total or non-HDL cholesterol from 1980 to 2018. This was a net effect of increases in low- and middle-income countries, especially in east and southeast Asia, and decreases in high-income western countries, especially those in northwestern Europe, and in central and eastern Europe. As a result, countries with the highest level of non-HDL cholesterol-which is a marker of cardiovascular riskchanged from those in western Europe such as Belgium, Finland, Greenland, Iceland, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland and Malta in 1980 to those in Asia and the Pacific, such as Tokelau, Malaysia, The Philippines and Thailand. In 2017, high non-HDL cholesterol was responsible for an estimated 3.9 million (95% credible interval 3.7 million-4.2 million) worldwide deaths, half of which occurred in east, southeast and south Asia. The global repositioning of lipid-related risk, with non-optimal cholesterol shifting from a distinct feature of high-income countries in northwestern Europe, north America and Australasia to one that affects countries in east and southeast Asia and Oceania should motivate the use of population-based policies and personal interventions to improve nutrition and enhance access to treatment throughout the world.Peer reviewe

Rising rural body-mass index is the main driver of the global obesity epidemic in adults

Body-mass index (BMI) has increased steadily in most countries in parallel with a rise in the proportion of the population who live in cities . This has led to a widely reported view that urbanization is one of the most important drivers of the global rise in obesity . Here we use 2,009\ua0population-based studies, with measurements of height and weight in more than 112\ua0million adults, to report national, regional and global trends in mean\ua0BMI segregated by place of residence (a rural or urban area) from 1985 to 2017. We show that, contrary to the dominant paradigm, more than 55% of the global rise in mean BMI from 1985 to 2017—and more than 80% in\ua0some low- and middle-income regions—was due to increases in BMI in rural areas. This large contribution stems from the fact that, with the exception of women in sub-Saharan Africa, BMI is increasing at the same rate or faster in rural areas than in cities\ua0in low- and middle-income regions. These trends have in turn resulted in a closing—and in some countries reversal—of the gap in BMI between urban and rural areas in low- and middle-income countries, especially for women. In high-income and industrialized countries, we noted a persistently higher rural BMI, especially for women. There is an urgent need for an integrated approach to rural nutrition that enhances financial and physical access to healthy foods, to avoid replacing the rural undernutrition disadvantage in poor countries with a more general malnutrition disadvantage that entails excessive consumption of low-quality calories

Pharmacokinetics of Aztreonam in Healthy Subjects and Patients with Cystic Fibrosis and Evaluation of Dose-Exposure Relationships Using Monte Carlo Simulation▿

Aztreonam (AZM) is a monobactam antibiotic with a high level of activity against gram-negative micro-organisms, including Pseudomonas aeruginosa. We evaluated AZM pharmacokinetics and pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic relationships in patients with cystic fibrosis (CF) and healthy subjects. Pharmacokinetic data in eight CF patients and healthy subjects that were matched for age, gender, weight, and height were obtained and analyzed by using the nonparametric adaptive grid algorithm. Probabilities of target attainment using percentages of time of unbound concentration above the MIC (fT>MIC) were obtained by using a Monte Carlo simulation. AZM total body clearance was significantly higher in CF patients (100.1 ± 17.1 versus 76.2 ± 7.4 ml/min in healthy subjects; P < 0.01). The pharmacokinetic parameter estimates for terminal half-life (1.54 ± 0.17 h [mean ± the standard deviation]) and volume of distribution (0.20 ± 0.02 liters/kg in patients with CF patients were not different from those in healthy subjects. Monte Carlo simulations with a target of a fT>MIC of 50 to 60% at a dose of 1,000 mg every 8 h indicated a clinical breakpoint of 4 mg/liter and 1 to 2 mg/liter for healthy subjects and CF patients, respectively. This study using matched controls showed that AZM total body clearance and not the volume of distribution is higher in CF patients as a result of increased renal clearance. Pharmacokinetic parameter estimates in healthy subjects resulted in a clinical susceptibility breakpoint of ≤4 mg/liter for a dose of 1,000 mg every 8 h. Patients suspected of having high clearance rates, such as CF patients, should be monitored closely, with dosing regimens adjusted accordingly

Daily intranasal palivizumab to prevent respiratory syncytial virus infection in healthy preterm infants: a phase 1/2b randomized placebo-controlled trialResearch in context

Summary: Background: Mucosal administration of monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) against respiratory pathogens is a promising alternative for systemic administration because lower doses are required for protection. Clinical development of mucosal mAbs is a highly active field yet clinical proof-of-concept is lacking. Methods: In this investigator-initiated, double-blind, randomized placebo-controlled trial, we evaluated intranasal palivizumab for the prevention of RSV infection in preterm infants (Dutch Trial Register NTR7378 and NTR7403). We randomized infants 1:1 to receive intranasal palivizumab (1 mg/mL) or placebo once daily during the RSV season. Any RSV infection was the primary outcome and RSV hospitalization was the key secondary outcome. The primary outcome was analyzed with a mixed effect logistic regression on the modified intention-to-treat population. Findings: We recruited 268 infants between Jan 14, 2019 and Jan 28, 2021, after which the trial was stopped for futility following the planned interim analysis. Adverse events were similar in both groups (22/134 (16.4%) palivizumab arm versus 26/134 (19.4%) placebo arm). There were 6 dropouts and 168 infants were excluded from the efficacy analyses due to absent RSV circulation during the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic. Any RSV infection was similar in infants in both groups (18/47 (38.3%) palivizumab arm versus 11/47 (23.4%) placebo arm; aOR 2.2, 95% CI 0.7–6.5). Interpretation: Daily intranasal palivizumab did not prevent RSV infection in late preterm infants. Our findings have important implications for the clinical development of mucosal mAbs, namely the necessity of timely interim analyses and further research to understand mucosal antibody half-life. Funding: Funded by the Department of Pediatrics, University Medical Centre Utrecht, the Netherlands