The papers on foreign and international policy in the Russian archives

Documents relatifs aux politiques extérieure et internationale conservés dans les archives russes : la période stalinienne. – Cet article est le compte rendu des recherches que l’auteur a effectuées dans les archives russes sur plusieurs aspects de la politique extérieure de Stalin dans les années 1930 et 1940. L’ouverture des archives russes s’est faite de manière très sélective en ce qui concerne la politique extérieure. Bien que le processus de déclassification ait été impressionnant, il n’a pas permis l’accès à tous les documents ni rendu possible l’utilisation de guides de recherche. Par exemple, le Centre des Archives de Politique Extérieure de la Fédération de Russie (Arhiv Vneshnej Politiki RF), principal fonds d’archives pour l’étude de la politique étrangère de l’URSS, ne permet pas, sur certains sujets, d’effectuer des recherches approfondies. La situation dans les archives du PCUS et dans celles d’organisations communistes internationales a connu une amélioration passagère, mais elle accuse une régression depuis les deux ou trois dernières années. Il semble que pendant les années 1992-1996 l’élan considérable d’ouverture des archives portant sur la politique extérieure de l’URSS se soit nettement essoufflé. Cependant, l’importance des archives pour l’histoire de la politique extérieure ne doit pas être sous-estimée. Bien que la documentation disponible ne nous éclaire pas toujours suffisamment sur le processus de prise de décision, elle apporte à notre vision des choses plus de complexité et de subtilité. Les nouveaux documents enrichissent considérablement notre compréhension du rapport entre la guerre froide et la politique extérieure soviétique de l’avant-guerre, et remettent en question la séparation entre ces deux phénomènes acceptée par les historiens avant 1991. Ils nous présentent également une vision plus équilibrée du rayonnement du stalinisme à l’extérieur dans les années qui suivirent la guerre. Bien qu’ils confirment globalement la représentation prédominante de la mainmise fermement établie de Stalin sur le processus politique, ils révèlent un aspect plus complexe et contradictoire de la politique en URSS. Par exemple, les documents d’archives sur le Cominform nous apportent la preuve d’un processus politique trompeur qui révèle un degré important d’ambiguïté dans les prises de décision.This article reports a research experience in the Russian archives on several aspects of Stalin’s foreign policy in the 1930s and 1940s. The opening of the Russian archives has been particularly selective in the field of foreign policy. Though an impressive process of declassification of archival materials has been undertaken, this not always results in the availability of documents and in the possibility to use finding aids. In particular, the Arkhiv Vneshnei Politiki Rossiiskoi Federatsii, which is the main archive for the analysis of Soviet foreign policy, does not offer, on very relevant topics, the chance to carry out a complete research. The situation in the CPSU archives and the archives of Communist international organizations was more favourable for some time, but it has been increasingly worsening over the last two-three years. Quite probably, in the opening of archival documentation on Soviet Foreign Policy an extremely favourable cycle has developed and exhausted itself approximately in the years 1992-1996. However, the impact of archives on foreign policy history should not be underestimated. Though the documentation available does not always shed enough light onto the decision-making processes, the complexity and subtlety of our views become greater. The new materials greatly enrich our understanding of the connection between the Cold War and pre-war Soviet foreign policy, thus challenging the division traced by pre-1991 historical analysis. They also lead us to a more balanced picture of the external dimension of Stalinism in the post-war years. While the predominant image of Stalin’s firm control of the political process is by and large confirmed, a complex and even contradictory character of Soviet politics can be seen. For example, the archival documents on the Cominform provide us with evidence of a deceptive political process, which shows a significant degree of ambiguity in policy-making

Gramsci e la Rivoluzione Russa: una riconsiderazione (1917-1935)

Nel cogliere l'occasione del centesimo anniversario della Rivoluzione russa e dell'ottantesimo della morte di Gramsci, il presente saggio si propone di contribuire alla contestualizzazione storica della sua personalit\ue0 e del suo pensiero, seguendo un approccio che si \ue8 sensibilmente consolidato negli studi pi\uf9 recenti. Il tema del rapporto di Gramsci con il leninismo e il bolscevismo \ue8 stato dibattuto infinite volte, ma oggi, a un quarto di secolo di distanza dalla fine del comunismo in Europa e in Russia, possiamo liberarci da costrizioni definitorie e ideologiche. Un modo per farlo \ue8 ricostruire i vari fili che legano il percorso di Gramsci prima dell'arresto e poi nella prigionia con l'esperienza centrale della Rivoluzione russa. Questi fili sono intrecciati con tutta la sua biografia dal 1917 in avanti, al punto tale che non \ue8 facile isolare il tema stesso e fornire tracce interpretative capaci di tenere insieme commenti, percezioni, analisi, strategie, riflessioni. Ma \ue8 necessario farlo se intendiamo comprendere meglio il nesso tra l'azione politica e il pensiero. Si intende anzi suggerire che proprio isolando il tema della Rivoluzione russa \ue8 possibile vedere con maggiore precisione la formazione delle principali categorie del pensiero politico di Gramsci

Pathway selection as a tool for crystal defect engineering: A case study with a functional coordination polymer

New synthetic routes capable of achieving defect engineering of functional crystals through well- controlled pathway selection will spark new breakthroughs and advances towards unprecedented and unique functional materials and devices. In nature, the interplay of chemical reactions with the diffusion of reagents in space and time is already used to favor such pathway selection and trigger the formation of materials with bespoke properties and functions, even when the material composition is preserved. Following this approach, herein we show that a controlled interplay of a coordination reaction with mass transport (i.e. the diffusion of reagents) is essential to favor the generation of charge imbalance defects (i.e. protonation defects) in a final crystal structure (thermodynamic product). We show that this syn- thetic pathway is achieved with the isolation of a kinetic product (i.e. a metastable state), which can be only accomplished when a controlled interplay of the reaction with mass transport is satisfied. Account- ing for the relevance of controlling, tuning and understanding structure-properties correlations, we have studied the spin transition evolution of a well-defined spin-crossover complex as a model system

Youthful Internationalism in the Age of ‘Socialism in One Country’: Komsomol'tsy, Pioneers and ‘World Revolution’ in the Interwar Period

This article examines the complex and multifaceted engagement of young Soviet communists with the idea of revolutionary internationalism and international solidarity in the interwar period. In spite of the introduction of the official doctrine of ‘Socialism in One Country’ and the ritualization of internationalism in in the 1920s, youth activists continued to encounter the powerful charismatic idea of ‘world revolution’. Moscow’s central role in the Communist International and developments in Asia and Europe meant that the members of the Pioneer organization and the Komsomol had to engage with revolutionary events abroad through the official discourse as well as through their league’s practices. The article seeks to reveal the interplay and tensions between the Komsomol’s official rhetoric and policies concerning its leading role in the international communist youth movement and the idiosyncratic revolutionary identities and beliefs of young activists. By examining the shifting rhetoric and realities in expressions and enactments of international solidarity by young communists, the paper will question the potency of the idea of ‘revolutionary internationalism’ amongst the communist youth movement and its significance in the intergenerational discourse

Italy's Communist Party and People's China (50s-early 60s)

In the ’50s and early ’60s the Italian Communist Party (ICP) was one of the main actors involved in informal and unconventional diplomacy between Italy and the People’s Republic of China (PRC). In the absence of diplomatic relations between the two countries, the presence in Italy of the largest Communist party in Western Europe undoubtedly acted as an important channel for unofficial Sino-Italian exchanges. This paper tries to trace the development of ICP-CCP relations focusing in particular on the Italian Communists’ views and analysis of the CCP’s historical experience. It also would like to show that ICP leaders generally viewed the CCP’s revolutionary in a positive way, an evaluation which largely stemmed from the ICP’s own national experience and its search for a more autonomous international role

The Gene Ontology knowledgebase in 2023

The Gene Ontology (GO) knowledgebase (http://geneontology.org) is a comprehensive resource concerning the functions of genes and gene products (proteins and noncoding RNAs). GO annotations cover genes from organisms across the tree of life as well as viruses, though most gene function knowledge currently derives from experiments carried out in a relatively small number of model organisms. Here, we provide an updated overview of the GO knowledgebase, as well as the efforts of the broad, international consortium of scientists that develops, maintains, and updates the GO knowledgebase. The GO knowledgebase consists of three components: (1) the GO-a computational knowledge structure describing the functional characteristics of genes; (2) GO annotations-evidence-supported statements asserting that a specific gene product has a particular functional characteristic; and (3) GO Causal Activity Models (GO-CAMs)-mechanistic models of molecular "pathways" (GO biological processes) created by linking multiple GO annotations using defined relations. Each of these components is continually expanded, revised, and updated in response to newly published discoveries and receives extensive QA checks, reviews, and user feedback. For each of these components, we provide a description of the current contents, recent developments to keep the knowledgebase up to date with new discoveries, and guidance on how users can best make use of the data that we provide. We conclude with future directions for the project

The World Federation of Democratic Youth and Bruno Bernini's encounter with Mao's China

This paper examines the role played by adult-led youth groups in providing avenues for early encounters between Italian and Chinese Communists in the '50s. In particular, it focuses on the links built up within international organisations linked to the Soviet-sponsored peace movement at a time when direct exchange between the Italian and Chinese Communist parties had yet to start. Relying on a large variety of primary and secondary sources, some of which have never been used before, I provide evidence of how participation in Soviet-led international organisations made early political contacts and interactions possible. The focus is on Bruno Bernini, whose personal experience in China is examined within the context of the World Federation of Democratic Youth's policies and initiatives in the early and mid-'50s

Non-invasive diagnostic tests for Helicobacter pylori infection

BACKGROUND: Helicobacter pylori (H pylori) infection has been implicated in a number of malignancies and non-malignant conditions including peptic ulcers, non-ulcer dyspepsia, recurrent peptic ulcer bleeding, unexplained iron deficiency anaemia, idiopathic thrombocytopaenia purpura, and colorectal adenomas. The confirmatory diagnosis of H pylori is by endoscopic biopsy, followed by histopathological examination using haemotoxylin and eosin (H & E) stain or special stains such as Giemsa stain and Warthin-Starry stain. Special stains are more accurate than H & E stain. There is significant uncertainty about the diagnostic accuracy of non-invasive tests for diagnosis of H pylori. OBJECTIVES: To compare the diagnostic accuracy of urea breath test, serology, and stool antigen test, used alone or in combination, for diagnosis of H pylori infection in symptomatic and asymptomatic people, so that eradication therapy for H pylori can be started. SEARCH METHODS: We searched MEDLINE, Embase, the Science Citation Index and the National Institute for Health Research Health Technology Assessment Database on 4 March 2016. We screened references in the included studies to identify additional studies. We also conducted citation searches of relevant studies, most recently on 4 December 2016. We did not restrict studies by language or publication status, or whether data were collected prospectively or retrospectively. SELECTION CRITERIA: We included diagnostic accuracy studies that evaluated at least one of the index tests (urea breath test using isotopes such as13C or14C, serology and stool antigen test) against the reference standard (histopathological examination using H & E stain, special stains or immunohistochemical stain) in people suspected of having H pylori infection. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: Two review authors independently screened the references to identify relevant studies and independently extracted data. We assessed the methodological quality of studies using the QUADAS-2 tool. We performed meta-analysis by using the hierarchical summary receiver operating characteristic (HSROC) model to estimate and compare SROC curves. Where appropriate, we used bivariate or univariate logistic regression models to estimate summary sensitivities and specificities. MAIN RESULTS: We included 101 studies involving 11,003 participants, of which 5839 participants (53.1%) had H pylori infection. The prevalence of H pylori infection in the studies ranged from 15.2% to 94.7%, with a median prevalence of 53.7% (interquartile range 42.0% to 66.5%). Most of the studies (57%) included participants with dyspepsia and 53 studies excluded participants who recently had proton pump inhibitors or antibiotics.There was at least an unclear risk of bias or unclear applicability concern for each study.Of the 101 studies, 15 compared the accuracy of two index tests and two studies compared the accuracy of three index tests. Thirty-four studies (4242 participants) evaluated serology; 29 studies (2988 participants) evaluated stool antigen test; 34 studies (3139 participants) evaluated urea breath test-13C; 21 studies (1810 participants) evaluated urea breath test-14C; and two studies (127 participants) evaluated urea breath test but did not report the isotope used. The thresholds used to define test positivity and the staining techniques used for histopathological examination (reference standard) varied between studies. Due to sparse data for each threshold reported, it was not possible to identify the best threshold for each test.Using data from 99 studies in an indirect test comparison, there was statistical evidence of a difference in diagnostic accuracy between urea breath test-13C, urea breath test-14C, serology and stool antigen test (P = 0.024). The diagnostic odds ratios for urea breath test-13C, urea breath test-14C, serology, and stool antigen test were 153 (95% confidence interval (CI) 73.7 to 316), 105 (95% CI 74.0 to 150), 47.4 (95% CI 25.5 to 88.1) and 45.1 (95% CI 24.2 to 84.1). The sensitivity (95% CI) estimated at a fixed specificity of 0.90 (median from studies across the four tests), was 0.94 (95% CI 0.89 to 0.97) for urea breath test-13C, 0.92 (95% CI 0.89 to 0.94) for urea breath test-14C, 0.84 (95% CI 0.74 to 0.91) for serology, and 0.83 (95% CI 0.73 to 0.90) for stool antigen test. This implies that on average, given a specificity of 0.90 and prevalence of 53.7% (median specificity and prevalence in the studies), out of 1000 people tested for H pylori infection, there will be 46 false positives (people without H pylori infection who will be diagnosed as having H pylori infection). In this hypothetical cohort, urea breath test-13C, urea breath test-14C, serology, and stool antigen test will give 30 (95% CI 15 to 58), 42 (95% CI 30 to 58), 86 (95% CI 50 to 140), and 89 (95% CI 52 to 146) false negatives respectively (people with H pylori infection for whom the diagnosis of H pylori will be missed).Direct comparisons were based on few head-to-head studies. The ratios of diagnostic odds ratios (DORs) were 0.68 (95% CI 0.12 to 3.70; P = 0.56) for urea breath test-13C versus serology (seven studies), and 0.88 (95% CI 0.14 to 5.56; P = 0.84) for urea breath test-13C versus stool antigen test (seven studies). The 95% CIs of these estimates overlap with those of the ratios of DORs from the indirect comparison. Data were limited or unavailable for meta-analysis of other direct comparisons. AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS: In people without a history of gastrectomy and those who have not recently had antibiotics or proton ,pump inhibitors, urea breath tests had high diagnostic accuracy while serology and stool antigen tests were less accurate for diagnosis of Helicobacter pylori infection.This is based on an indirect test comparison (with potential for bias due to confounding), as evidence from direct comparisons was limited or unavailable. The thresholds used for these tests were highly variable and we were unable to identify specific thresholds that might be useful in clinical practice.We need further comparative studies of high methodological quality to obtain more reliable evidence of relative accuracy between the tests. Such studies should be conducted prospectively in a representative spectrum of participants and clearly reported to ensure low risk of bias. Most importantly, studies should prespecify and clearly report thresholds used, and should avoid inappropriate exclusions