Propriétés anti-inflammatoires de facteurs produits par le tissu adipeux - Applications potentielles dans la neurodégénérescence

Globally obesity is one of the greatest public health challenges of 21st century, and is considered a major health risk factor. Obesity is responsible for the onset of various kinds of disorders including diabetes, cardiovascular diseases and cancer. Adipose tissue (AT) is a highly active endocrine organ which has intense secretory activity producing an assortment of over 600 factors that have versatile biological activities. Some of these factors are named adipocytokines and have gain an intensive focus on current metabolic and disease recent research. Accumulating data on adipocytokine research strongly suggest that adipose tissue is the key player in promoting chronic inflammation. Many chronic neurodegenerative diseases such as Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s diseases have been associated with inflammation in the Central Nervous System (CNS) in which microglia and astrocytes (glial cells) play a decisive role. Autotaxin (ATX) and Adiponectin (ADIPO) are mediators secreted by the AT. The role of these mediators in metabolic activities have been well studied but the potential role of these adipocyte secreted factors and its precise mechanisms in CNS vulnerability remains to be determined. Here we used, in vivo, two distinct inflammatory stimuli, lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and trimethyltin (TMT), to characterize the expression of inflammatory mediators in mouse CNS. Acute intraperitoneal (ip) injection of LPS (100μg/Kg bwt) mimics gram negative bacterial infection, while acute ip injection of organometal TMT (2mg/kg bwt), induces hippocampal neurodegeneration. Microglia and astrocytes are the major source of inflammatory factors in the brain. To investigate, in vitro, the role of ATX and ADIPO in inflammatory and oxidative stress condition, we generated stable over-expressing transfectant in murine microglia BV2 cells for ATX and murine astrocyte CLTT cells for ADIPO. BV2 and CLTT stably transfected overexpressing clones were treated with LPS (1 μg/mL) and H2O2 (100μM). Our in vivo results demonstrated that ATX and ADIPO were expressed in the brain and LPS induced a transient neuroinflammatory response in three distinct regions of the brain hippocampus (HIP), cortex (COR) and cerebellum (CER). Besides this it was also found that with this mild dosage of 100 μg LPS/Kg bwt of mice, microglia and astrocytes were not activated in the brain (Project-1). Our in vitro results authenticate the anti-inflammatory effects of ATX in microglial cells demonstrated by the downregulation of microglial activation markers (CD11b, CD14, CD80 and CD86) and pro-inflammatory cytokine expression and secretion (TNF-α and IL-6) (Project-2). Likewise, ADIPO put forth its anti-oxidant role in astrocyte cells mediated via significant mitigation of ROS, and as well by the significant down and upregulation of pro-oxidative inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase-2(COX-2) and anti-oxidative enzymes mRNA expression levels superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT) respectively (Project-3). Overall these results suggest that peripheral inflammation induced by infection will not induce neurodegeneration (unless a massive infection) but could prime the glial cells and make them more responsive to the next stimulation. ATX and ADIPO may play a role in the regulation of neuroinflammation by regulating glial activation in stressed situations. Further investigations will be needed to better understand the molecular mechanisms regulating brain inflammation and lead to new therapeutic strategies to combat neurodegenerative diseases.L'obésité est l'un des plus grands défis de santé publique du 21ème siècle et est considérée comme un facteur de risque majeur pour la santé. L'obésité est responsable de l'apparition de divers troubles, notamment du diabète, des maladies cardiovasculaires et de certains cancers. Le tissu adipeux (TA) est un organe endocrine très actif qui a une activité sécrétoire intense produisant un assortiment de plus de 600 facteurs qui ont des activités biologiques variées. Certains de ces facteurs sont appelés adipocytokines et font l'objet d'un intérêt particulier dans les recherches récentes sur le métabolisme et les pathologies associées. De nombreuses données sur les adipocytokines suggèrent fortement que le tissu adipeux est un élément clé dans le développement d'une inflammation chronique. De nombreuses maladies neurodégénératives chroniques telles que la sclérose latérale amyotrophique, la maladie d'Alzheimer et la maladie de Parkinson ont été associées à une inflammation du système nerveux central (SNC), dans lequel la microglie et les astrocytes (cellules gliales) jouent un rôle déterminant. L'autotaxin (ATX) et l'adiponectine (ADIPO) sont des médiateurs sécrétées par le TA. Le rôle de ces médiateurs dans les activités métaboliques a été bien étudié, mais leur rôle potentiel ainsi que les mécanismes précis dans la vulnérabilité du CNS restent à déterminer. Ici, nous proposons d'utiliser, in vivo, deux stimuli inflammatoires distincts le lipopolysaccharide (LPS) et le triméthylétain (TMT) pour caractériser l'expression de médiateurs de l'inflammation du SNC chez la souris. Une injection intrapéritonéale (ip) aiguë de LPS (100 μg/kg de poids corporel) mime une infection bactérienne Gram négative, tandis que l'injection ip aiguë de TMT (2 mg/kg de poids corporel), induit une neurodégénérescence hippocampique. Les microglies et les astrocytes sont les principales sources de facteurs inflammatoires dans le cerveau. Afin de rechercher, in vitro, le rôle de l'ATX et de l'ADIPO sur ces cellules dans un état inflammatoire et de stress oxydatif, nous avons généré des tansfectants stables sur-exprimant l'ATX dans des cellules microgliales murines (BV2) et l'ADIPO dans des cellules astrocytaires murines (CLTT). Les clones BV2 et CLTT surexprimant ces facteurs ont été traitées avec du LPS (1 μg/ml) et du H2O2 (100μM). Nos résultats in vivo ont démontré que l'ATX et l'ADIPO sont exprimés dans le cerveau et que le LPS pourrait induire une réponse neuroinflammatoire transitoire dans trois régions distinctes du cerveau l'hippocampe (HIP), le cortex (COR) et le cervelet (CER). Il a été également constaté qu'à cette dose modérée de 100μg de LPS / kg de poids corporel de la souris, la microglie et les astrocytes ne sont pas activés dans le cerveau (Projet-1). Nos résultats in vitro démontrent les effets anti-inflammatoires de l'ATX dans les cellules microgliales observables par la baisse d'expression des marqueurs d'activation microgliale (CD11b, CD14, CD80 et CD86) et d'expression et de production de cytokines pro-inflammatoires (TNF-α et IL-6) (Project-2). Nous avons montré que l'ADIPO a un rôle anti-oxydant dans les astrocytes via l'atténuation significative de ROS, une inhibition d'enzymes pro-oxydantes (iNOS et la COX-2) et une régulation positive d'enzymes anti-oxydantes (SOD et CAT) (Projet-3). Dans l'ensemble, ces résultats suggèrent qu'une inflammation périphérique induite par une infection ne provoque pas de neurodégénérescence (à moins d'une infection importante), mais pourrait sensibiliser les cellules gliales et augmenter leur réponse à la stimulation suivante. L'ATX et l'ADIPO pourraient jouer un rôle dans la régulation de la neuroinflammation en régulant l'activation gliale dans un contexte de stress. Des travaux supplémentaires seront nécessaires afin de mieux comprendre les mécanismes moléculaires régulant l'inflammation du SNC et aboutir à de nouvelles stratégies thérapeutiques pour combattre les maladies neurodégénératives

Influence of Obesity on Neurodegenerative Diseases

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Lidar observations of sporadic Na layers over Gadanki (13.5° N, 79.2° E)

International audienceWe studied the characteristics of sporadic sodium layers (SSLs) observed with the sodium (Na) resonance scattering lidar at Gadanki (13.5° N, 79.2° E). The SSLs were observed on a total of 63 occasions during 464 h of Na lidar observations from January 2005 to February 2006. The observations showed that one SSL event occurred, on average, every 7 h. The most prominent sporadic layer, which formed on 12 February 2005, exhibited a peak density of 60 722 Na atoms/cm³ around 92 km and it was nearly twice the peak density reported from elsewhere using ground-based observations. In general, the SSLs exhibited the following characteristics: (1) they developed at heights between 88 and 98 km with an average height around 94 km; (2) maximum density occurred during the early morning hours between 02:00 and 05:00 IST; (3) the ratio of the maximum peak Na density to the average density was normally around 3 to 5 and it exceeded even 10 in some cases; (4) the events lasted from a few minutes to several hours. The formation period of the SSLs was longer compared to the decay period of the SSLs. Most of the SSL events showed downward motions

Cerebrovascular dysfunction with stress and depression

Maintenance of adequate tissue perfusion through a dense network of cerebral microvessels is critical for the perseveration of normal brain function. Regulation of the cerebral blood flow has to ensure adequate delivery of nutrients and oxygen with moment-to-moment adjustments to avoid both hypo- and hyper-perfusion of the brain tissue. Even mild impairments of cerebral blood flow regulation can have significant implications on brain function. Evidence suggests that chronic stress and depression elicits multifaceted functional impairments to the cerebral microcirculation, which plays a critical role in brain health and the pathogenesis of stress-related cognitive impairment and cerebrovascular events. Identifying the functional and structural changes to the brain that are induced by stress is crucial for achieving a realistic understanding of how related illnesses, which are highly disabling and with a large economic cost, can be managed or reversed. This overview discusses the stress-induced alterations in neurovascular coupling with specific attention to cerebrovascular regulation (endothelial dependent and independent vasomotor function, microvessel density). The pathophysiological consequences of cerebral microvascular dysfunction with stress and depression are explored

The restorative role of annexin A1 at the blood–brain barrier

Annexin A1 is a potent anti-inflammatory molecule that has been extensively studied in the peripheral immune system, but has not as yet been exploited as a therapeutic target/agent. In the last decade, we have undertaken the study of this molecule in the central nervous system (CNS), focusing particularly on the primary interface between the peripheral body and CNS: the blood–brain barrier. In this review, we provide an overview of the role of this molecule in the brain, with a particular emphasis on its functions in the endothelium of the blood–brain barrier, and the protective actions the molecule may exert in neuroinflammatory, neurovascular and metabolic disease. We focus on the possible new therapeutic avenues opened up by an increased understanding of the role of annexin A1 in the CNS vasculature, and its potential for repairing blood–brain barrier damage in disease and aging

CNS targets of adipokines

This is the author accepted manuscript. The final version is available from American Physiological Society via the DOI in this record.Our understanding of adipose tissue as an endocrine organ has been transformed over the last twenty years. During this time a number of adipocyte-derived factors or adipokines have been identified. This paper will review evidence for how adipokines acting via the central nervous system (CNS) regulate normal physiology and disease pathology. The reported CNS-mediated effects of adipokines are varied and include the regulation of energy homeostasis, autonomic nervous system activity, the reproductive axis, neurodevelopment, cardiovascular function, and cognition. Due to the wealth of information available and the diversity of their known functions, the archetypal adipokines leptin and adiponectin will be the focused on extensively. Other adipokines with established CNS actions will also be discussed. Due to the difficulties associated with studying CNS function on a molecular level in humans, the majority of our knowledge, and as such the studies described in this paper, comes from work in experimental animal models; however, where possible the relevant data from human studies are also highlighted

Anti-Inflammatory Properties of Factors Produced By the Fat Tissue - Potential Applications in Neurodegeneration

L'obésité est l'un des plus grands défis de santé publique du 21ème siècle et est considérée comme un facteur de risque majeur pour la santé. L'obésité est responsable de l'apparition de divers troubles, notamment du diabète, des maladies cardiovasculaires et de certains cancers. Le tissu adipeux (TA) est un organe endocrine très actif qui a une activité sécrétoire intense produisant un assortiment de plus de 600 facteurs qui ont des activités biologiques variées. Certains de ces facteurs sont appelés adipocytokines et font l'objet d'un intérêt particulier dans les recherches récentes sur le métabolisme et les pathologies associées. De nombreuses données sur les adipocytokines suggèrent fortement que le tissu adipeux est un élément clé dans le développement d'une inflammation chronique. De nombreuses maladies neurodégénératives chroniques telles que la sclérose latérale amyotrophique, la maladie d'Alzheimer et la maladie de Parkinson ont été associées à une inflammation du système nerveux central (SNC), dans lequel la microglie et les astrocytes (cellules gliales) jouent un rôle déterminant. L'autotaxin (ATX) et l'adiponectine (ADIPO) sont des médiateurs sécrétées par le TA. Le rôle de ces médiateurs dans les activités métaboliques a été bien étudié, mais leur rôle potentiel ainsi que les mécanismes précis dans la vulnérabilité du CNS restent à déterminer. Ici, nous proposons d'utiliser, in vivo, deux stimuli inflammatoires distincts le lipopolysaccharide (LPS) et le triméthylétain (TMT) pour caractériser l'expression de médiateurs de l'inflammation du SNC chez la souris. Une injection intrapéritonéale (ip) aiguë de LPS (100 μg/kg de poids corporel) mime une infection bactérienne Gram négative, tandis que l'injection ip aiguë de TMT (2 mg/kg de poids corporel), induit une neurodégénérescence hippocampique. Les microglies et les astrocytes sont les principales sources de facteurs inflammatoires dans le cerveau. Afin de rechercher, in vitro, le rôle de l'ATX et de l'ADIPO sur ces cellules dans un état inflammatoire et de stress oxydatif, nous avons généré des tansfectants stables sur-exprimant l'ATX dans des cellules microgliales murines (BV2) et l'ADIPO dans des cellules astrocytaires murines (CLTT). Les clones BV2 et CLTT surexprimant ces facteurs ont été traitées avec du LPS (1 μg/ml) et du H2O2 (100μM). Nos résultats in vivo ont démontré que l'ATX et l'ADIPO sont exprimés dans le cerveau et que le LPS pourrait induire une réponse neuroinflammatoire transitoire dans trois régions distinctes du cerveau l'hippocampe (HIP), le cortex (COR) et le cervelet (CER). Il a été également constaté qu'à cette dose modérée de 100μg de LPS / kg de poids corporel de la souris, la microglie et les astrocytes ne sont pas activés dans le cerveau (Projet-1). Nos résultats in vitro démontrent les effets anti-inflammatoires de l'ATX dans les cellules microgliales observables par la baisse d'expression des marqueurs d'activation microgliale (CD11b, CD14, CD80 et CD86) et d'expression et de production de cytokines pro-inflammatoires (TNF-α et IL-6) (Project-2). Nous avons montré que l'ADIPO a un rôle anti-oxydant dans les astrocytes via l'atténuation significative de ROS, une inhibition d'enzymes pro-oxydantes (iNOS et la COX-2) et une régulation positive d'enzymes anti-oxydantes (SOD et CAT) (Projet-3). Dans l'ensemble, ces résultats suggèrent qu'une inflammation périphérique induite par une infection ne provoque pas de neurodégénérescence (à moins d'une infection importante), mais pourrait sensibiliser les cellules gliales et augmenter leur réponse à la stimulation suivante. L'ATX et l'ADIPO pourraient jouer un rôle dans la régulation de la neuroinflammation en régulant l'activation gliale dans un contexte de stress. Des travaux supplémentaires seront nécessaires afin de mieux comprendre les mécanismes moléculaires régulant l'inflammation du SNC et aboutir à de nouvelles stratégies thérapeutiques pour combattre les maladies neurodégénératives.Globally obesity is one of the greatest public health challenges of 21st century, and is considered a major health risk factor. Obesity is responsible for the onset of various kinds of disorders including diabetes, cardiovascular diseases and cancer. Adipose tissue (AT) is a highly active endocrine organ which has intense secretory activity producing an assortment of over 600 factors that have versatile biological activities. Some of these factors are named adipocytokines and have gain an intensive focus on current metabolic and disease recent research. Accumulating data on adipocytokine research strongly suggest that adipose tissue is the key player in promoting chronic inflammation. Many chronic neurodegenerative diseases such as Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s diseases have been associated with inflammation in the Central Nervous System (CNS) in which microglia and astrocytes (glial cells) play a decisive role. Autotaxin (ATX) and Adiponectin (ADIPO) are mediators secreted by the AT. The role of these mediators in metabolic activities have been well studied but the potential role of these adipocyte secreted factors and its precise mechanisms in CNS vulnerability remains to be determined. Here we used, in vivo, two distinct inflammatory stimuli, lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and trimethyltin (TMT), to characterize the expression of inflammatory mediators in mouse CNS. Acute intraperitoneal (ip) injection of LPS (100μg/Kg bwt) mimics gram negative bacterial infection, while acute ip injection of organometal TMT (2mg/kg bwt), induces hippocampal neurodegeneration. Microglia and astrocytes are the major source of inflammatory factors in the brain. To investigate, in vitro, the role of ATX and ADIPO in inflammatory and oxidative stress condition, we generated stable over-expressing transfectant in murine microglia BV2 cells for ATX and murine astrocyte CLTT cells for ADIPO. BV2 and CLTT stably transfected overexpressing clones were treated with LPS (1 μg/mL) and H2O2 (100μM). Our in vivo results demonstrated that ATX and ADIPO were expressed in the brain and LPS induced a transient neuroinflammatory response in three distinct regions of the brain hippocampus (HIP), cortex (COR) and cerebellum (CER). Besides this it was also found that with this mild dosage of 100 μg LPS/Kg bwt of mice, microglia and astrocytes were not activated in the brain (Project-1). Our in vitro results authenticate the anti-inflammatory effects of ATX in microglial cells demonstrated by the downregulation of microglial activation markers (CD11b, CD14, CD80 and CD86) and pro-inflammatory cytokine expression and secretion (TNF-α and IL-6) (Project-2). Likewise, ADIPO put forth its anti-oxidant role in astrocyte cells mediated via significant mitigation of ROS, and as well by the significant down and upregulation of pro-oxidative inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase-2(COX-2) and anti-oxidative enzymes mRNA expression levels superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT) respectively (Project-3). Overall these results suggest that peripheral inflammation induced by infection will not induce neurodegeneration (unless a massive infection) but could prime the glial cells and make them more responsive to the next stimulation. ATX and ADIPO may play a role in the regulation of neuroinflammation by regulating glial activation in stressed situations. Further investigations will be needed to better understand the molecular mechanisms regulating brain inflammation and lead to new therapeutic strategies to combat neurodegenerative diseases

Rayleigh LIDAR and satellite (HALOE, SABER, CHAMP and COSMIC) measurements of stratosphere-mesosphere temperature over a southern sub-tropical site, Reunion (20.8° S; 55.5° E): climatology and comparison study

International audienceFor the first time, climatology of the middle atmosphere thermal structure is presented, based on 14 years of LIDAR and satellite (HALOE, SABER, CHAMP and COSMIC) temperature measurements. The data is collected over a southern sub-tropical site, Reunion Island (20.8° S; 55.5° E), for the height range between 30 and 60 km. The overall monthly mean temperature shows a maximum of 265-270 K at the stratopause height region from ~44-52 km and peaks during the months of March and November. Furthermore, the temperature profiles are compared with different satellite datasets (HALOE, CHAMP, COSMIC and SABER) and the results are found to be in reasonable agreement with each other, although a relative difference in temperature of ± 5 to 6 K is noticed. In comparison, LIDAR shows higher/lower temperatures for the lower mesosphere/upper stratosphere height region. The differences in temperature measured by the LIDAR and satellite measurements are analogous with previous results available elsewhere. Long-term temperature measurements are used to further study seasonal oscillations, especially annual, semi-annual and quasi-biennial oscillations. In comparison with SAO, the measured spectral amplitudes of AO shows dominant amplitudes in both the upper stratosphere and lower mesosphere height regions. Using LIDAR and the other satellite measurements, the quasi-biennial oscillation was found to be approximately 26 months. The spectral amplitudes are comparable to the results reported earlier by other researchers