Household costs of healthcare during pregnancy, delivery, and the postpartum period : a case study from Matlab, Bangladesh

A household survey was undertaken in Matlab, a rural area of Bangladesh, to estimate the costs incurred during pregnancy, delivery, and the postpartum period for women delivering at home and in a health facility. Those interviewed included 121 women who delivered at home, 120 who delivered in an ICDDR,B basic obstetric care (BEOC) facility, 27 who delivered in a public comprehensive obstetric care (CEOC) hospital, and 58 who delivered in private hospitals. There was no significant difference in total costs incurred by those delivering at home and those delivering in a BEOC facility. Costs for those delivering in CEOC facilities were over nine times greater than for those delivering in BEOC facilities. Costs of care during delivery were predominant. Antenatal and postnatal care added between 7% and 30% to the total cost. Services were more equitable at home and in a BEOC facility compared to services provided at CEOC facilities. The study highlights the regressive nature of the financing of CEOC services and the need for a financing strategy that covers both the costs of referral and BEOC care for those in need.This research was funded under the Cooperative Agreement No. 388-A-00-97-00032-00 with the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) (ICDDR,B Grant No. GR-00089). ICDDR,B acknowledges with gratitude the commitment of USAID to the Centre’s research efforts. Carine Ronsmans and Jo Borghi are funded by the Department for International Development, UK

Investigating Gene Functions in Mycobacteriophage Island3

Island3 is a temperate Cluster I1 mycobacteriophage that infects Mycobacterium smegmatis mc2155. Its genome consists of 76 protein-coding genes, only 17 of which have known functions. Towards the goal of identifying additional gene functions, we amplified, cloned, and assayed 14 genes for host cytotoxicity and the ability to render the host resistant to infection by other phages (defense). We analyzed genes 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 21, 22, 25, 50, 51, 57, 60, and 61 and concluded that none of these genes exhibited either host cytotoxicity or defense against phage infection. We are in the process of assaying the remaining genes of Island3

Cultural and Social Context of Dysentery: Implications for the Introduction of a New Vaccine

Dysentery, a severe form of diarrhoeal disease, is a major cause of morbidity and mortality. Paradoxically, virtually no studies have been conducted to examine beliefs and behaviours associated with dysentery. The explanatory model of dysentery was explored in a community in Dhaka, Bangladesh, to understand the acceptability of a vaccine against dysentery. A local term for bloody dysentery is widely known, and residents describe a progression of symptoms, which closely mirrors the biomedical model of the disease. Due to the symbolic significance of blood loss and the fact that there is much uncertainty regarding treatment, bloody dysentery is perceived to be extremely serious. Causal interpretations most commonly relate to humoral theories, and remedies involve the consumption of 'cooling' foods that will reduce the heat associated with dysentery. Despite many misconceptions about vaccines and the fact that this approach contradicts aetiological explanations, the perceived severity of the illness makes vaccines attractive compared to other preventative measures. The results illuminate relevant information for the implementation of a new vaccine

Postpartum Haemorrhage and Eclampsia: Differences in Knowledge and Care-seeking Behaviour in Two Districts of Bangladesh

In high- and low-performing districts of Bangladesh, the study explored the demand-side of maternal healthcare by looking at differences in perceived knowledge and care-seeking behaviours of women in relation to postpartum haemorrhage or eclampsia. Haemorrhage and eclampsia are two major causes of maternal mortality in Bangladesh. The study was conducted during July 2006–December 2007. Both postpartum bleeding and eclampsia were recognized by women of different age-groups as severe and life-threatening obstetric complications. However, a gap existed between perception and actual care-seeking behaviours which could contribute to the high rate of maternal deaths associated with these conditions. There were differences in care-seeking practices among women in the two different areas of Bangladesh, which may reflect sociocultural differences, disparities in economic and educational opportunities, and a discrimination in the availability of care

An Examination of Women Experiencing Obstetric Complications Requiring Emergency Care: Perceptions and Sociocultural Consequences of Caesarean Sections in Bangladesh

Little is known about the physical and socioeconomic postpartum consequences of women who experience obstetric complications and require emergency obstetric care (EmOC), particularly in resource-poor countries such as Bangladesh where historically there has been a strong cultural preference for births at home. Recent increases in the use of skilled birth attendants show socioeconomic disparities in access to emergency obstetric services, highlighting the need to examine birthing preparation and perceptions of EmOC, including caesarean sections. Twenty women who delivered at a hospital and were identified by physicians as having severe obstetric complications during delivery or immediately thereafter were selected to participate in this qualitative study. Purposive sampling was used for selecting the women. The study was carried out in Matlab, Bangladesh, during March 2008 - August 2009. Data-collection methods included in-depth interviews with women and, whenever possible, their family members. The results showed that the women were poorly informed before delivery about pregnancy-related complications and medical indications for emergency care. Barriers to care-seeking at emergency obstetric facilities and acceptance of lifesaving care were related to apprehensions about the physical consequences and social stigma, resulting from hospital procedures and financial concerns. The respondents held many misconceptions about caesarean sections and distrust regarding the reason for recommending the procedure by the healthcare providers. Women who had caesarean sections incurred high costs that led to economic burdens on family members, and the blame was attributed to the woman. The postpartum health consequences reported by the women were generally left untreated. The data underscore the importance of educating women and their families about pregnancy-related complications and preparing families for the possibility of caesarean section. At the same time, the health systems need to be strengthened to ensure that all women in clinical need of lifesaving obstetric surgery access quality EmOC services rapidly and, once in a facility, can obtain a caesarean section promptly, if needed. While greater access to surgical interventions may be lifesaving, policy-makers need to institute mechanisms to discourage the over-medicalization of childbirth in a context where the use of caesarean section is rapidly rising

Violence against Women with Chronic Maternal Disabilities in Rural Bangladesh

This study explored violence against women with chronic maternal disabilities in rural Bangladesh. During November 2006 - July 2008, in-depth interviews were conducted with 17 rural Bangladeshi women suffering from uterine prolapse, stress incontinence, or fistula. Results of interviews showed that exposure to emotional abuse was almost universal, and most women were sexually abused. The common triggers for violence were the inability of the woman to perform household chores and to satisfy her husband's sexual demands. Misconceptions relating to the causes of these disabilities and the inability of the affected women to fulfill gender role expectations fostered stigma. Emotional and sexual violence increased their vulnerability, highlighting the lack of life options outside marriage and silencing most of them into accepting the violence. Initiatives need to be developed to address misperceptions regarding the causes of such disabilities and, in the long-term, create economic opportunities for reducing the dependence of women on marriage and men and transform the society to overcome rigid gender norms

Foodborne Transmission of Nipah Virus, Bangladesh

TOC summary line: Nipah virus was likely transmitted from fruit bats to humans by drinking fresh date palm sap

Limb, sex, but not acute dietary capsaicin, modulate the near-infrared spectroscopy-vascular occlusion test estimate of muscle metabolism

The downward slope during the near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS)-vascular occlusion test (NIRS-VOT) is purported as a simplified estimate of metabolism. Whether or not the NIRS-VOT exhibits sex- or limb-specificity or may be acutely altered remains to be elucidated. Thus, we investigated if there is limb- or sex specificity in tissue desaturation rates (DeO2) during a NIRS-VOT, and if acute dietary capsaicin may alter this estimate of muscle metabolism. Young healthy men (n = 25, 21 ± 4 years) and women (n = 20, 20 ± 1 years) ingested either placebo or capsaicin, in a counterbalanced, single-blind, crossover design after which a simplified NIRS-VOT was conducted to determine the DeO2 (%/s), as an estimate of oxidative muscle metabolism, in both the forearm (flexors) and thigh (vastus lateralis). There was a significant limb effect with the quadriceps having a greater DeO2 than the forearm (-2.31 ± 1.34 vs. -1.78 ± 1.22%/s, p = 0.007, ηp 2 = 0.19). There was a significant effect of sex on DeO2 (p = 0.005, ηp 2 = 0.203) with men exhibiting a lesser DeO2 than women (-1.73 ± 1.03 vs. -2.36 ± 1.32%/s, respectively). This manifested in significant interactions of limb*capsaicin (p = 0.001, ηp 2 = 0.26) as well as limb*capsaicin*sex on DeO2 (p = 0.013, ηp 2 = 0.16) being observed. Capsaicin does not clearly alter O2-dependent muscle metabolism, but there was apparent limb and sex specificity, interacting with capsaicin in this NIRS-derived assessment

A Review of Drowning Prevention Interventions for Children and Young People in High, Low and Middle Income Countries.

Globally, drowning is one of the ten leading causes of child mortality. Children aged <5 years are particularly at risk, and children and young people continue to be overrepresented in drowning statistics. Accordingly, evidence informed interventions to prevent children drowning are of global importance. This review aimed to identify, assess and analyse public health interventions to reduce child drowning and investigate the use of behavioural theories and evaluation frameworks to guide child drowning prevention. Thirteen databases were searched for relevant peer reviewed articles. The systematic review was guided by the PRISMA criteria and registered with PROSPERO. Fifteen articles were included in the final review. Studies were delivered in high, middle and low income countries. Intervention designs varied, one-third of studies targeted children under five. Almost half of the studies relied on education and information to reduce drowning deaths, only three studies used a multi-strategy approach. Minimal use of behavioural theories and/or frameworks was found and just one-third of the studies described formative evaluation. This review reveals an over reliance on education and information as a strategy to prevent drowning, despite evidence for comprehensive multi-strategy approaches. Accordingly, interventions must be supported that use a range of strategies, are shaped by theory and planning and evaluation frameworks, and are robust in intervention design, delivery and evaluation methodology. This approach will provide sound evidence that can be disseminated to inform future practice and policy for drowning prevention

Large expert-curated database for benchmarking document similarity detection in biomedical literature search

Document recommendation systems for locating relevant literature have mostly relied on methods developed a decade ago. This is largely due to the lack of a large offline gold-standard benchmark of relevant documents that cover a variety of research fields such that newly developed literature search techniques can be compared, improved and translated into practice. To overcome this bottleneck, we have established the RElevant LIterature SearcH consortium consisting of more than 1500 scientists from 84 countries, who have collectively annotated the relevance of over 180 000 PubMed-listed articles with regard to their respective seed (input) article/s. The majority of annotations were contributed by highly experienced, original authors of the seed articles. The collected data cover 76% of all unique PubMed Medical Subject Headings descriptors. No systematic biases were observed across different experience levels, research fields or time spent on annotations. More importantly, annotations of the same document pairs contributed by different scientists were highly concordant. We further show that the three representative baseline methods used to generate recommended articles for evaluation (Okapi Best Matching 25, Term Frequency-Inverse Document Frequency and PubMed Related Articles) had similar overall performances. Additionally, we found that these methods each tend to produce distinct collections of recommended articles, suggesting that a hybrid method may be required to completely capture all relevant articles. The established database server located at https://relishdb.ict.griffith.edu.au is freely available for the downloading of annotation data and the blind testing of new methods. We expect that this benchmark will be useful for stimulating the development of new powerful techniques for title and title/abstract-based search engines for relevant articles in biomedical research.Peer reviewe