Cellular phosphatases facilitate combinatorial processing of receptor-activated signals

<p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p>Although reciprocal regulation of protein phosphorylation represents a key aspect of signal transduction, a larger perspective on how these various interactions integrate to contribute towards signal processing is presently unclear. For example, a key unanswered question is that of how phosphatase-mediated regulation of phosphorylation at the individual nodes of the signaling network translates into modulation of the net signal output and, thereby, the cellular phenotypic response.</p> <p>Results</p> <p>To address the above question we, in the present study, examined the dynamics of signaling from the B cell antigen receptor (BCR) under conditions where individual cellular phosphatases were selectively depleted by siRNA. Results from such experiments revealed a highly enmeshed structure for the signaling network where each signaling node was linked to multiple phosphatases on the one hand, and each phosphatase to several nodes on the other. This resulted in a configuration where individual signaling intermediates could be influenced by a spectrum of regulatory phosphatases, but with the composition of the spectrum differing from one intermediate to another. Consequently, each node differentially experienced perturbations in phosphatase activity, yielding a unique fingerprint of nodal signals characteristic to that perturbation. This heterogeneity in nodal experiences, to a given perturbation, led to combinatorial manipulation of the corresponding signaling axes for the downstream transcription factors.</p> <p>Conclusion</p> <p>Our cumulative results reveal that it is the tight integration of phosphatases into the signaling network that provides the plasticity by which perturbation-specific information can be transmitted in the form of a multivariate output to the downstream transcription factor network. This output in turn specifies a context-defined response, when translated into the resulting gene expression profile.</p

Identification of Host-Dependent Survival Factors for Intracellular Mycobacterium tuberculosis through an siRNA Screen

The stable infection of host macrophages by Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) involves, and depends on, the attenuation of the diverse microbicidal responses mounted by the host cell. This is primarily achieved through targeted perturbations of the host cellular signaling machinery. Therefore, in view of the dependency of the pathogen on host molecules for its intracellular survival, we wanted to test whether targeting such factors could provide an alternate route for the therapeutic management of tuberculosis. To first identify components of the host signaling machinery that regulate intracellular survival of Mtb, we performed an siRNA screen against all known kinases and phosphatases in murine macrophages infected with the virulent strain, H37Rv. Several validated targets could be identified by this method where silencing led either to a significant decrease, or enhancement in the intracellular mycobacterial load. To further resolve the functional relevance of these targets, we also screened against these identified targets in cells infected with different strains of multiple drug-resistant mycobacteria which differed in terms of their intracellular growth properties. The results obtained subsequently allowed us to filter the core set of host regulatory molecules that functioned independently of the phenotypic variations exhibited by the pathogen. Then, using a combination of both in vitro and in vivo experimentation, we could demonstrate that at least some of these host factors provide attractive targets for anti-TB drug development. These results provide a “proof-of-concept” demonstration that targeting host factors subverted by intracellular Mtb provides an attractive and feasible strategy for the development of anti-tuberculosis drugs. Importantly, our findings also emphasize the advantage of such an approach by establishing its equal applicability to infections with Mtb strains exhibiting a range of phenotypic diversifications, including multiple drug-resistance. Thus the host factors identified here may potentially be exploited for the development of anti-tuberculosis drugs

Guidelines for the use and interpretation of assays for monitoring autophagy (3rd edition)

In 2008 we published the first set of guidelines for standardizing research in autophagy. Since then, research on this topic has continued to accelerate, and many new scientists have entered the field. Our knowledge base and relevant new technologies have also been expanding. Accordingly, it is important to update these guidelines for monitoring autophagy in different organisms. Various reviews have described the range of assays that have been used for this purpose. Nevertheless, there continues to be confusion regarding acceptable methods to measure autophagy, especially in multicellular eukaryotes. For example, a key point that needs to be emphasized is that there is a difference between measurements that monitor the numbers or volume of autophagic elements (e.g., autophagosomes or autolysosomes) at any stage of the autophagic process versus those that measure fl ux through the autophagy pathway (i.e., the complete process including the amount and rate of cargo sequestered and degraded). In particular, a block in macroautophagy that results in autophagosome accumulation must be differentiated from stimuli that increase autophagic activity, defi ned as increased autophagy induction coupled with increased delivery to, and degradation within, lysosomes (inmost higher eukaryotes and some protists such as Dictyostelium ) or the vacuole (in plants and fungi). In other words, it is especially important that investigators new to the fi eld understand that the appearance of more autophagosomes does not necessarily equate with more autophagy. In fact, in many cases, autophagosomes accumulate because of a block in trafficking to lysosomes without a concomitant change in autophagosome biogenesis, whereas an increase in autolysosomes may reflect a reduction in degradative activity. It is worth emphasizing here that lysosomal digestion is a stage of autophagy and evaluating its competence is a crucial part of the evaluation of autophagic flux, or complete autophagy. Here, we present a set of guidelines for the selection and interpretation of methods for use by investigators who aim to examine macroautophagy and related processes, as well as for reviewers who need to provide realistic and reasonable critiques of papers that are focused on these processes. These guidelines are not meant to be a formulaic set of rules, because the appropriate assays depend in part on the question being asked and the system being used. In addition, we emphasize that no individual assay is guaranteed to be the most appropriate one in every situation, and we strongly recommend the use of multiple assays to monitor autophagy. Along these lines, because of the potential for pleiotropic effects due to blocking autophagy through genetic manipulation it is imperative to delete or knock down more than one autophagy-related gene. In addition, some individual Atg proteins, or groups of proteins, are involved in other cellular pathways so not all Atg proteins can be used as a specific marker for an autophagic process. In these guidelines, we consider these various methods of assessing autophagy and what information can, or cannot, be obtained from them. Finally, by discussing the merits and limits of particular autophagy assays, we hope to encourage technical innovation in the field

Altered glucose homeostasis in response to aluminium phosphide induced cellular oxygen deficit in rat

722-730The present study was designed to analyze the effect of acute aluminium phosphide (ALP) (10 mg/kg body wt.) exposure on the glucose homeostasis in rat liver and brain. ALP has been implicated in the inhibition of cytochrome oxidase causing reduced oxygen uptake and decreased ATP synthesis eventually resulting in cellular energy crisis. A significant decrease in plasma glucose levels in the ALP treated rats has been observed. Therefore, decreased ATP levels coupled with hypoglycemia may further intensify the cellular energy deficits. In order to meet the sudden increase in the local energy demand, the brain tissue utilizes its stored energy in the form of glycogen breakdown as observed by a decrease in the glycogen levels in both liver and brain which was accompanied by a marked increase in the activity of glycogen phosphorylase in both the tissues. The glycolytic rate was found to be enhanced in brain tissue as evident by increased activities of hexokinase and phosphofructokinase enzymes, but decreased in liver of ALP treated rats. Lactate levels were increased in plasma and brain, but decreased in liver of ALP treated rats. Pyruvate levels increased in the plasma and liver, but no change was observed in the brain tissue. ALP did not cause any change in the gluconeogenic enzymes like glucose-6-phosphatase and fructose-1,6-bisphophatase in brain, but a significant increase was observed in the liver. Results of the study showed that ALP induced cellular energy deficit leads to compromised energy status of liver and brain coupled with substantial alterations in glucose homeostasis. However, the activity of glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase decreased significantly in both the tissues