Exploring Family Relations between International Patent Applications

In the international system for granting patents for inventions, first patent filings can be followed by subsequent filings at other patent offices within one year. Each such group of related filings constitutes a patent family. Tests are developed as to whether the observed number of first filings that leads to subsequent filings (r) is in agreement with a random process of assignment of the hits from the subsequent filings. An exact expression for the random distribution can be used for small sized data sets. Its behaviour and also the behaviour of an asymptotic Poisson approximation as well as a censored binomial distribution for r are assessed. The approach is stimulated by the Fisher-Wright model in population genetics and possible parallel applications to other biological processes are sought, such as transformations of stem cells and cancer

Disability and Inclusive Education: A United Kingdom Perspective

Produced by The Center on Disability Studies, University of Hawai'i at Manoa, Honolulu, Hawai'i and The School of Social Sciences, The University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, Texas for The Society for Disability Studies

Dendritic Cells in Chronic Mycobacterial Granulomas Restrict Local Anti-Bacterial T Cell Response in a Murine Model

Background: Mycobacterium-induced granulomas are the interface between bacteria and host immune response. During acute infection dendritic cells (DCs) are critical for mycobacterial dissemination and activation of protective T cells. However, their role during chronic infection in the granuloma is poorly understood. Methodology/Principal Findings: We report that an inflammatory subset of murine DCs are present in granulomas induced by Mycobacteria bovis strain Bacillus Calmette-guerin (BCG), and both their location in granulomas and costimulatory molecule expression changes throughout infection. By flow cytometric analysis, we found that CD11c + cells in chronic granulomas had lower expression of MHCII and co-stimulatory molecules CD40, CD80 and CD86, and higher expression of inhibitory molecules PD-L1 and PD-L2 compared to CD11c + cells from acute granulomas. As a consequence of their phenotype, CD11c + cells from chronic lesions were unable to support the reactivation of newly-recruited, antigen 85Bspecific CD4 + IFNc + T cells or induce an IFNc response from naïve T cells in vivo and ex vivo. The mechanism of this inhibition involves the PD-1:PD-L signaling pathway, as ex vivo blockade of PD-L1 and PD-L2 restored the ability of isolated CD11c + cells from chronic lesions to stimulate a protective IFNc T cell response. Conclusions/Significance: Our data suggest that DCs in chronic lesions may facilitate latent infection by down-regulating protective T cell responses, ultimately acting as a shield that promotes mycobacterium survival. This DC shield may explai

Barbarians at the British Museum: Anglo-Saxon Art, Race and Religion

A critical historiographical overview of art historical approaches to early medieval material culture, with a focus on the British Museum collections and their connections to religion

The extent to which national research and development expenditures affect first patent filings in contracting states of the European Patent Convention

The objective of this paper is to investigate the relationship between R&D expenditures and the numbers of patent applications coming to contracting states of the European Patent Convention (EPC). Annualised data on patent application filings and R&D expenditures from 1963 to 1993 were collected for each state. Regression models were constructed to relate domestic first filings (DF) in contracting states of the European Patent Convention (EPC) to R&D expenditure in those states. The models gave an indication of the time-lag effect of R&D on DF, as well as on the nature of the effect (data for Germany were restricted to the former West Germany). Two types of regression models were used. Time-series analysis transfer functions were successfully fitted to 10 of the 13 states, with an average time lag estimated as 3.6 years. Linear regression analysis also gave acceptable models when fitted to the whole data sets, but only in six of the 13 states. However, if linear regression was restricted to DF data from 1980 onwards, acceptable models were found for 11 of the 13 states, with an average lag estimated as 2.8 years. When the most appropriate model was selected for each state, the average delay was estimated as 3.7 years. Comparison of the forecasts with actual results suggests that the method is reasonably accurate.

Numbers and sizes of applicants at the European Patent Office

The evolution of numbers of applicants and the applicant size distributions in terms of numbers of patent filings are described for clients of the European Patent Office (EPO). Concentrating firstly on the period from 1999 to 2006, it is found that only about 35% of the applicants that file in one year then file again in the following year. However this percentage does not drop too much in further years because of a core group of large companies that persist in making considerable numbers of filings. It is mainly the applicants with small numbers of filings in a year that apply intermittently. A historical analysis is made since 1980 on applicant sizes in terms of Total filings. Breakdowns of the counts are considered by using a series of Size groups. The dynamics are studied via simple Markov chain stochastic process models for transitions between the Size groups. These involve a no-memory-assumption for approximating the probabilities of transitions for two and more years. Firstly, a general model is fitted. This allows a direct estimation to be made of the average remaining lifetime of continuous filing for an applicant that is already active. Then a "poisoned" model is fitted in which no further transitions are allowed back to filing after an applicant ceases to file. Finally, a five year windowed approach is taken to remove the influence of inactive applicants on the transition probabilities as far as possible. A comparative test suggests that the poisoned approach works best among the models that were tested. The discussion section considers policy implications and suggests ways to further develop the approach.Applicant Application Forecasting Markov chain model Patent Stochastic process Time series European Patent Office

Methods for forecasting numbers of patent applications at the European Patent Office

Accurate forecasting of numbers of patent application filings is crucial for resource planning at the European Patent Office (EPO) and other patent offices. As a supranational office, the EPO usually attracts Subsequent Filings rather than the priority forming First Filings. This fact needs to be incorporated in forecasting models for EPO filings and a two stage mechanistic framework is proposed. The forecasting methods that have been used routinely at the EPO have been: trend analyses; a transfer model that uses First Filings as an indicator of EPO filings one year later; and regular surveys of applicants to determine their future intentions. Controlling Office (CO) carries out the basic forecasting exercise on an annual basis as an input to discussions on the formation of the EPO Budget. A Research Programme has been set up for the improvement of the patenting methodology. Five projects under the programme have achieved mixed degrees of success up to this stage. A new challenge for the forecasting team is to accommodate the need to make forecasts for each of 14 Joint Clusters, based on the different technical areas in which patent applications are made to the EPO. The EPO participates in a Trilateral Statistical Working Group (TSWG), together with representatives of the Japanese Patent Office (JPO) and the United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO). This group examines and compares forecasting techniques, and seeks to find models for world-wide patent application patterns across borders. The EPO also has a duty to review or participate in more general studies of the patenting system, in order to advise EPO management on strategic issues regarding the environment of patenting.European Patent Office EPO Patent statistics Patent filing Patent forecasting Trend analysis Transfer models Applicant surveys Technical clusters Trilateral cooperation