Populismus und Elitarismus im heutigen Russland

Dieser Beitrag analysiert die Rolle des Populismus in der russischen Politik und dessen inadäquate Einschätzungen in ideologischen Diskussionen. Der Begriff "Populismus" selbst trägt unbestimmte und zugleich zutiefst negative Züge. Aus Sicht des Regimes in Russland steht Populismus vor allem für die Gefahr "farbiger Revolutionen" wie jener in Georgien, der Ukraine und der sich aktuell in Armenien entwickelnden. Als wichtigstes Mittel zur Verhütung dieser Art "Populismus" setzt die russische Regierung präventive Repressionen gegen populäre Oppositionelle und Anführer gesellschaftlicher Bewegungen wie beispielsweise Alexej Nawalnyj ein. Die liberale Opposition brandmarkt mit dem Wort "Populisten" vor allem das Regime in Russland. Präsident Putin wird mit dem US-Präsidenten Donald Trump verglichen, obwohl es der russische Präsident nicht nötig hat, auf Populismus zurückzugreifen, um so lang an der Macht zu bleiben, wie er will. In dem Beitrag wird angenommen, dass der Populismus in Russland schwach und oft nur ein scheinbarer ist, während in Wirklichkeit der Einfluss auf den politischen Prozess durch eine andere Form der Demagogie erfolgt, nämlich den Elitarismus, der keineswegs auf einem Liebäugeln mit dem Volk gründet, sondern auf einer Verachtung für das Volk und der Angst vor Massenbewegungen

Die Ereignisse in Moskau vom 11. Dezember 2010: Der ethnische Ausdruck der politischen Krise

Die Zusammenstöße zwischen Ultranationalisten, Fußballfans, Zuwanderern und der Polizei, die am 11. Dezember 2010 auf dem Moskauer Manegen-Platz nach der Tötung eines Fußballfans durch einen Zuwanderer aus dem Nordkaukasus ausbrachen, haben erneut gezeigt, dass ethnische Konflikte und Xenophobie im heutigen Russland weiter ein kritisches Thema sind. Der vorliegende Beitrag analysiert, wie wachsende soziale Unsicherheit und Unzufriedenheit im heutigen Russland kanalisiert wird und in ethnischem Hass, Kaukasier- und Islamfeindlichkeit Ausdruck findet

Межэтнические отношения: сущность и основные разновидности

The article analyzes Russian academic sources and government documents with the focus on ethnic and national relations reveals their eclectic nature and the confusion in the use of terms. The article provides the authorial definition of the phenomenon “inter-ethnic relations”, the main feature of which is the awareness of cross-cultural differences. The author proceeds from the differentiation of the concepts of “nation” and “ethnos” in the scientific tradition and public administration, as they have historically developed in different models — French and German. In world science, the differences between two types of imaginary communities are established: on the one hand — nations, as political communities that are associated with the idea of citizenship and popular sovereignty. And, on the other, ethnocultural communities that are defined nowadays with the help of such terms as “ethnos” or “ethaneе”, “ethnic group”, “ethnicity”. The author traces the origins and evolution of the notion “nation” in Russia from the late 18-th to Soviet time inclusive. He also produces the typologization of ethnic processes concerning two fundamental varieties: dividing (vertical and horizontal conflicts) and unifying (convergence, merger, dissolution). The scholar carried out the research on the material embracing Russian history of the last two centuries based on the census and statistical data. The author describes key stages and specific features of assimilation processes in the world and Russia, its phases and cycles (acculturation, socialization, economic accommodation, self-identification of a full member of the host society). The paper illustrates the manifestations of dividing processes by the case of Russia and examines the sources of conflicts. The author identified three problem areas: socio-economic and socio-status inequality; changes in the ethno-demographic situation; ethno-language relations and problems. The author argues that the whole range of ethno-social and ethno-language issues in Russia is developing against the background of people’s growing interest in ethnic identity.В статье анализируются российские научные источники и государственные документы, посвященные этническим и национальным отношениям, выявляются их эклектический характер и путаница в употреблении терминов. Предлагается авторское определение феномена «межэтнические отношения», в котором главным признаком становится осознание культурных различий. Автор отталкивается от разграничения понятий «нация» и «этнос» в научной традиции и государственном управлении, как они исторически сложились в разных моделях — французской и немецкой. В мировой науке закрепляются различия между двумя типами воображаемых сообществ: с одной стороны — нациями как политическими сообществами, связанными с идеей гражданства и народного суверенитета, а с другой стороны, с этнокультурными сообществами, определяемыми ныне с помощью таких терминов, как «этнос» или «этния» (ethaneе), «этническая группа» (ethnic group), «этничность» (ethnicity). Прослежены истоки и эволюция термина «нация» в России с конца XVIII в. по советское время включительно. Проведена типологизация этнических процессов относительно двух фундаментальных разновидностей: разделительных (вертикальные и горизонтальные конфликты) и объединительных (сближение, слияние, растворение). Исследование осуществлено на материале истории России последних двух веков, с опорой на данные переписей и статистики. Описаны основные этапы и особенности процессов ассимиляции в мире и в России, ее этапы и циклы (аккультурация, социализация, экономическая аккомодация, идентификация себя в качестве полноценного члена принимающего общества). Описаны проявления разделительных процессов на примере России, и исследованы истоки конфликтов. Выделены три основные проблемные сферы: социально-экономическое и социально-статусное неравенство; изменение этнодемографической ситуации; этноязыковые отношения и проблемы. Доказывается, что весь комплекс этносоциальных и этноязыковых проблем в России развертывается на фоне значительного подъема интереса людей к этнической идентичности

«Этнополитический маятник» и его проявления в политике государственного сталинского антисемитизма в СССР

In the article, the author uses the metaphor of the "pendulum" to explore the state antisemitism of the Stalinist period as a model of Soviet national policy, whose direction was subject to constant and radical changes by virtue of the unprecedented opportunities for subjectivism and political arbitrariness in public administration. The author tests his hypothesis that such antisemitism was rather an instrument of political technology, utilized towards different ethnic communities and political personalities than a manifestation of xenophobia towards the established ethnicity (to the Jews).The author explains the essence of the concept of an ethnopolitical pendulum. He consistently reveals major historical phases of the Stalinist regime’ attitude and its policy towards Jews: from a broadly neutral and even positive attitude before the Second World War to the gradually hidden increase in negative attitudes and discrimination during the Great Patriotic War and the increasingly frank and open antisemitic stance after the war. This resulted in brutal repression against prominent representatives of the Jewish ethnic group in all spheres of public life (army, industry, science, art). However, within the framework of this trend, the ethnic pendulum, guided by the logic of political expediency, kept on working, sometimes making return motions towards curbing the antisemitic steps of the authorities.В статье метафора «маятник» используется для анализа государственного антисемитизма сталинского времени как модели советской национальной политики, направленность которой была подвержена постоянным и радикальным переменам в силу беспрецедентно больших возможностей проявления субъективизма и политического произвола в государственном управлении. Автор проверяет свою гипотезу о том, что такой антисемитизм был не столько проявлением ксенофобии по отношению к определенной этничности (к евреям), сколько инструментом политической технологии, используемой по отношению к разным этническим общностям и политическим персонам. Объясняется сущность понятия «этнополитический маятник». Последовательно раскрываются основные исторические этапы отношения сталинского режима, его политики по отношению к евреям: от в целом нейтрального и даже позитивного отношения до Второй мировой войны к постепенному скрытому нарастанию негативного отношения и дискриминации в период Великой Отечественной войны и все более откровенно и открыто антисемитскому курсу после войны, вылившемуся в жестокие репрессии против видных представителей еврейского этноса во всех сферах общественной жизни (армии, промышленности, науке, искусстве). Однако в рамках этой тенденции этнический маятник, руководимый логикой политической целесообразности, продолжал работать, иногда совершая обратные движения в сторону сдерживания антисемитских шагов власти

La Russia e i conflitti nel Caucaso

Il futuro politico del Caucaso e il ruolo della Russia: analisi comparativa e valutazione del rischio di conflitti etnopolitici.- Indice #7- Introduzione, Piero Sinatti #11- Il futuro politico del Caucaso: saggio di analisi comparata e retrospettiva, Andrej Zubov #33- Analisi comparativa e valutazione del rischio di conflitti etnopolitici lungo le frontiere russe: il ruolo della Russia, Emil’ Pain #113- Dagestan: un enigma dei tempi postsovietici. È possibile un’ulteriore destabilizzazione?, Michajl Roščin #147- La Cecenia: una tragedia che viene da lontano, Piero Sinatti #167- Aspetti etnici dei flussi migratori nel Caucaso settentrionale e conseguenze politiche, Vitalij Belozerov #233- Migrazioni fra paesi della Csi e Russia: passato, presente e futuro, Žanna Zajončkovskaja #255- Le risorse energetiche e lo scenario geopolitico nelle regioni di confine della Russia, Leonid Vardomskij #28

Measuring performance on the Healthcare Access and Quality Index for 195 countries and territories and selected subnational locations: A systematic analysis from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2016

Background: A key component of achieving universal health coverage is ensuring that all populations have access to quality health care. Examining where gains have occurred or progress has faltered across and within countries is crucial to guiding decisions and strategies for future improvement. We used the Global Burden of Diseases, Injuries, and Risk Factors Study 2016 (GBD 2016) to assess personal health-care access and quality with the Healthcare Access and Quality (HAQ) Index for 195 countries and territories, as well as subnational locations in seven countries, from 1990 to 2016. Methods Drawing from established methods and updated estimates from GBD 2016, we used 32 causes from which death should not occur in the presence of effective care to approximate personal health-care access and quality by location and over time. To better isolate potential effects of personal health-care access and quality from underlying risk factor patterns, we risk-standardised cause-specific deaths due to non-cancers by location-year, replacing the local joint exposure of environmental and behavioural risks with the global level of exposure. Supported by the expansion of cancer registry data in GBD 2016, we used mortality-to-incidence ratios for cancers instead of risk-standardised death rates to provide a stronger signal of the effects of personal health care and access on cancer survival. We transformed each cause to a scale of 0-100, with 0 as the first percentile (worst) observed between 1990 and 2016, and 100 as the 99th percentile (best); we set these thresholds at the country level, and then applied them to subnational locations. We applied a principal components analysis to construct the HAQ Index using all scaled cause values, providing an overall score of 0-100 of personal health-care access and quality by location over time. We then compared HAQ Index levels and trends by quintiles on the Socio-demographic Index (SDI), a summary measure of overall development. As derived from the broader GBD study and other data sources, we examined relationships between national HAQ Index scores and potential correlates of performance, such as total health spending per capita. Findings In 2016, HAQ Index performance spanned from a high of 97\ub71 (95% UI 95\ub78-98\ub71) in Iceland, followed by 96\ub76 (94\ub79-97\ub79) in Norway and 96\ub71 (94\ub75-97\ub73) in the Netherlands, to values as low as 18\ub76 (13\ub71-24\ub74) in the Central African Republic, 19\ub70 (14\ub73-23\ub77) in Somalia, and 23\ub74 (20\ub72-26\ub78) in Guinea-Bissau. The pace of progress achieved between 1990 and 2016 varied, with markedly faster improvements occurring between 2000 and 2016 for many countries in sub-Saharan Africa and southeast Asia, whereas several countries in Latin America and elsewhere saw progress stagnate after experiencing considerable advances in the HAQ Index between 1990 and 2000. Striking subnational disparities emerged in personal health-care access and quality, with China and India having particularly large gaps between locations with the highest and lowest scores in 2016. In China, performance ranged from 91\ub75 (89\ub71-93\ub76) in Beijing to 48\ub70 (43\ub74-53\ub72) in Tibet (a 43\ub75-point difference), while India saw a 30\ub78-point disparity, from 64\ub78 (59\ub76-68\ub78) in Goa to 34\ub70 (30\ub73-38\ub71) in Assam. Japan recorded the smallest range in subnational HAQ performance in 2016 (a 4\ub78-point difference), whereas differences between subnational locations with the highest and lowest HAQ Index values were more than two times as high for the USA and three times as high for England. State-level gaps in the HAQ Index in Mexico somewhat narrowed from 1990 to 2016 (from a 20\ub79-point to 17\ub70-point difference), whereas in Brazil, disparities slightly increased across states during this time (a 17\ub72-point to 20\ub74-point difference). Performance on the HAQ Index showed strong linkages to overall development, with high and high-middle SDI countries generally having higher scores and faster gains for non-communicable diseases. Nonetheless, countries across the development spectrum saw substantial gains in some key health service areas from 2000 to 2016, most notably vaccine-preventable diseases. Overall, national performance on the HAQ Index was positively associated with higher levels of total health spending per capita, as well as health systems inputs, but these relationships were quite heterogeneous, particularly among low-to-middle SDI countries. Interpretation GBD 2016 provides a more detailed understanding of past success and current challenges in improving personal health-care access and quality worldwide. Despite substantial gains since 2000, many low-SDI and middle- SDI countries face considerable challenges unless heightened policy action and investments focus on advancing access to and quality of health care across key health services, especially non-communicable diseases. Stagnating or minimal improvements experienced by several low-middle to high-middle SDI countries could reflect the complexities of re-orienting both primary and secondary health-care services beyond the more limited foci of the Millennium Development Goals. Alongside initiatives to strengthen public health programmes, the pursuit of universal health coverage hinges upon improving both access and quality worldwide, and thus requires adopting a more comprehensive view-and subsequent provision-of quality health care for all populations

Measuring performance on the Healthcare Access and Quality Index for 195 countries and territories and selected subnational locations: A systematic analysis from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2016

Copyright © 2018 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. Background A key component of achieving universal health coverage is ensuring that all populations have access to quality health care. Examining where gains have occurred or progress has faltered across and within countries is crucial to guiding decisions and strategies for future improvement. We used the Global Burden of Diseases, Injuries, and Risk Factors Study 2016 (GBD 2016) to assess personal health-care access and quality with the Healthcare Access and Quality (HAQ) Index for 195 countries and territories, as well as subnational locations in seven countries, from 1990 to 2016. Methods Drawing from established methods and updated estimates from GBD 2016, we used 32 causes from which death should not occur in the presence of effective care to approximate personal health-care access and quality by location and over time. To better isolate potential effects of personal health-care access and quality from underlying risk factor patterns, we risk-standardised cause-specific deaths due to non-cancers by location-year, replacing the local joint exposure of environmental and behavioural risks with the global level of exposure. Supported by the expansion of cancer registry data in GBD 2016, we used mortality-to-incidence ratios for cancers instead of risk-standardised death rates to provide a stronger signal of the effects of personal health care and access on cancer survival. We transformed each cause to a scale of 0-100, with 0 as the first percentile (worst) observed between 1990 and 2016, and 100 as the 99th percentile (best); we set these thresholds at the country level, and then applied them to subnational locations. We applied a principal components analysis to construct the HAQ Index using all scaled cause values, providing an overall score of 0-100 of personal health-care access and quality by location over time. We then compared HAQ Index levels and trends by quintiles on the Socio-demographic Index (SDI), a summary measure of overall development. As derived from the broader GBD study and other data sources, we examined relationships between national HAQ Index scores and potential correlates of performance, such as total health spending per capita. Findings In 2016, HAQ Index performance spanned from a high of 97·1 (95% UI 95·8-98·1) in Iceland, followed by 96·6 (94·9-97·9) in Norway and 96·1 (94·5-97·3) in the Netherlands, to values as low as 18·6 (13·1-24·4) in the Central African Republic, 19·0 (14·3-23·7) in Somalia, and 23·4 (20·2-26·8) in Guinea-Bissau. The pace of progress achieved between 1990 and 2016 varied, with markedly faster improvements occurring between 2000 and 2016 for many countries in sub-Saharan Africa and southeast Asia, whereas several countries in Latin America and elsewhere saw progress stagnate after experiencing considerable advances in the HAQ Index between 1990 and 2000. Striking subnational disparities emerged in personal health-care access and quality, with China and India having particularly large gaps between locations with the highest and lowest scores in 2016. In China, performance ranged from 91·5 (89·1-93·6) in Beijing to 48·0 (43·4-53·2) in Tibet (a 43·5-point difference), while India saw a 30·8-point disparity, from 64·8 (59·6-68·8) in Goa to 34·0 (30·3-38·1) in Assam. Japan recorded the smallest range in subnational HAQ performance in 2016 (a 4·8-point difference), whereas differences between subnational locations with the highest and lowest HAQ Index values were more than two times as high for the USA and three times as high for England. State-level gaps in the HAQ Index in Mexico somewhat narrowed from 1990 to 2016 (from a 20·9-point to 17·0-point difference), whereas in Brazil, disparities slightly increased across states during this time (a 17·2-point to 20·4-point difference). Performance on the HAQ Index showed strong linkages to overall development, with high and high-middle SDI countries generally having higher scores and faster gains for non-communicable diseases. Nonetheless, countries across the development spectrum saw substantial gains in some key health service areas from 2000 to 2016, most notably vaccine-preventable diseases. Overall, national performance on the HAQ Index was positively associated with higher levels of total health spending per capita, as well as health systems inputs, but these relationships were quite heterogeneous, particularly among low-to-middle SDI countries. Interpretation GBD 2016 provides a more detailed understanding of past success and current challenges in improving personal health-care access and quality worldwide. Despite substantial gains since 2000, many low-SDI and middle- SDI countries face considerable challenges unless heightened policy action and investments focus on advancing access to and quality of health care across key health services, especially non-communicable diseases. Stagnating or minimal improvements experienced by several low-middle to high-middle SDI countries could reflect the complexities of re-orienting both primary and secondary health-care services beyond the more limited foci of the Millennium Development Goals. Alongside initiatives to strengthen public health programmes, the pursuit of universal health coverage hinges upon improving both access and quality worldwide, and thus requires adopting a more comprehensive view - and subsequent provision - of quality health care for all populations

Global, regional, and national life expectancy, all-cause mortality, and cause-specific mortality for 249 causes of death, 1980-2015 : a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2015

Background Improving survival and extending the longevity of life for all populations requires timely, robust evidence on local mortality levels and trends. The Global Burden of Disease 2015 Study (GBD 2015) provides a comprehensive assessment of all-cause and cause-specific mortality for 249 causes in 195 countries and territories from 1980 to 2015. These results informed an in-depth investigation of observed and expected mortality patterns based on sociodemographic measures. Methods We estimated all-cause mortality by age, sex, geography, and year using an improved analytical approach originally developed for GBD 2013 and GBD 2010. Improvements included refinements to the estimation of child and adult mortality and corresponding uncertainty, parameter selection for under-5 mortality synthesis by spatiotemporal Gaussian process regression, and sibling history data processing. We also expanded the database of vital registration, survey, and census data to 14 294 geography-year datapoints. For GBD 2015, eight causes, including Ebola virus disease, were added to the previous GBD cause list for mortality. We used six modelling approaches to assess cause-specific mortality, with the Cause of Death Ensemble Model (CODEm) generating estimates for most causes. We used a series of novel analyses to systematically quantify the drivers of trends in mortality across geographies. First, we assessed observed and expected levels and trends of cause-specific mortality as they relate to the Socio-demographic Index (SDI), a summary indicator derived from measures of income per capita, educational attainment, and fertility. Second, we examined factors affecting total mortality patterns through a series of counterfactual scenarios, testing the magnitude by which population growth, population age structures, and epidemiological changes contributed to shifts in mortality. Finally, we attributed changes in life expectancy to changes in cause of death. We documented each step of the GBD 2015 estimation processes, as well as data sources, in accordance with Guidelines for Accurate and Transparent Health Estimates Reporting (GATHER). Findings Globally, life expectancy from birth increased from 61.7 years (95% uncertainty interval 61.4-61.9) in 1980 to 71.8 years (71.5-72.2) in 2015. Several countries in sub-Saharan Africa had very large gains in life expectancy from 2005 to 2015, rebounding from an era of exceedingly high loss of life due to HIV/AIDS. At the same time, many geographies saw life expectancy stagnate or decline, particularly for men and in countries with rising mortality from war or interpersonal violence. From 2005 to 2015, male life expectancy in Syria dropped by 11.3 years (3.7-17.4), to 62.6 years (56.5-70.2). Total deaths increased by 4.1% (2.6-5.6) from 2005 to 2015, rising to 55.8 million (54.9 million to 56.6 million) in 2015, but age-standardised death rates fell by 17.0% (15.8-18.1) during this time, underscoring changes in population growth and shifts in global age structures. The result was similar for non-communicable diseases (NCDs), with total deaths from these causes increasing by 14.1% (12.6-16.0) to 39.8 million (39.2 million to 40.5 million) in 2015, whereas age-standardised rates decreased by 13.1% (11.9-14.3). Globally, this mortality pattern emerged for several NCDs, including several types of cancer, ischaemic heart disease, cirrhosis, and Alzheimer's disease and other dementias. By contrast, both total deaths and age-standardised death rates due to communicable, maternal, neonatal, and nutritional conditions significantly declined from 2005 to 2015, gains largely attributable to decreases in mortality rates due to HIV/AIDS (42.1%, 39.1-44.6), malaria (43.1%, 34.7-51.8), neonatal preterm birth complications (29.8%, 24.8-34.9), and maternal disorders (29.1%, 19.3-37.1). Progress was slower for several causes, such as lower respiratory infections and nutritional deficiencies, whereas deaths increased for others, including dengue and drug use disorders. Age-standardised death rates due to injuries significantly declined from 2005 to 2015, yet interpersonal violence and war claimed increasingly more lives in some regions, particularly in the Middle East. In 2015, rotaviral enteritis (rotavirus) was the leading cause of under-5 deaths due to diarrhoea (146 000 deaths, 118 000-183 000) and pneumococcal pneumonia was the leading cause of under-5 deaths due to lower respiratory infections (393 000 deaths, 228 000-532 000), although pathogen-specific mortality varied by region. Globally, the effects of population growth, ageing, and changes in age-standardised death rates substantially differed by cause. Our analyses on the expected associations between cause-specific mortality and SDI show the regular shifts in cause of death composition and population age structure with rising SDI. Country patterns of premature mortality (measured as years of life lost [YLLs]) and how they differ from the level expected on the basis of SDI alone revealed distinct but highly heterogeneous patterns by region and country or territory. Ischaemic heart disease, stroke, and diabetes were among the leading causes of YLLs in most regions, but in many cases, intraregional results sharply diverged for ratios of observed and expected YLLs based on SDI. Communicable, maternal, neonatal, and nutritional diseases caused the most YLLs throughout sub-Saharan Africa, with observed YLLs far exceeding expected YLLs for countries in which malaria or HIV/AIDS remained the leading causes of early death. Interpretation At the global scale, age-specific mortality has steadily improved over the past 35 years; this pattern of general progress continued in the past decade. Progress has been faster in most countries than expected on the basis of development measured by the SDI. Against this background of progress, some countries have seen falls in life expectancy, and age-standardised death rates for some causes are increasing. Despite progress in reducing age-standardised death rates, population growth and ageing mean that the number of deaths from most non-communicable causes are increasing in most countries, putting increased demands on health systems. Copyright (C) The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd.Peer reviewe

Measuring performance on the Healthcare Access and Quality Index for 195 countries and territories and selected subnational locations: a systematic analysis from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2016.

BACKGROUND: A key component of achieving universal health coverage is ensuring that all populations have access to quality health care. Examining where gains have occurred or progress has faltered across and within countries is crucial to guiding decisions and strategies for future improvement. We used the Global Burden of Diseases, Injuries, and Risk Factors Study 2016 (GBD 2016) to assess personal health-care access and quality with the Healthcare Access and Quality (HAQ) Index for 195 countries and territories, as well as subnational locations in seven countries, from 1990 to 2016. METHODS: Drawing from established methods and updated estimates from GBD 2016, we used 32 causes from which death should not occur in the presence of effective care to approximate personal health-care access and quality by location and over time. To better isolate potential effects of personal health-care access and quality from underlying risk factor patterns, we risk-standardised cause-specific deaths due to non-cancers by location-year, replacing the local joint exposure of environmental and behavioural risks with the global level of exposure. Supported by the expansion of cancer registry data in GBD 2016, we used mortality-to-incidence ratios for cancers instead of risk-standardised death rates to provide a stronger signal of the effects of personal health care and access on cancer survival. We transformed each cause to a scale of 0-100, with 0 as the first percentile (worst) observed between 1990 and 2016, and 100 as the 99th percentile (best); we set these thresholds at the country level, and then applied them to subnational locations. We applied a principal components analysis to construct the HAQ Index using all scaled cause values, providing an overall score of 0-100 of personal health-care access and quality by location over time. We then compared HAQ Index levels and trends by quintiles on the Socio-demographic Index (SDI), a summary measure of overall development. As derived from the broader GBD study and other data sources, we examined relationships between national HAQ Index scores and potential correlates of performance, such as total health spending per capita