Influences des structures familiales sur les connaissances et comportements de prévention du VIH/SIDA chez les adolescents et les jeunes au Cameroun

En dépit de nombreuses interventions en santé reproductive en Afrique subsaharienne, la trilogie « IST/VIH/SIDA - grossesses précoces - avortements » persiste à des niveaux très élevés par rapport aux autres parties du monde. Cela indique que les nombreuses interventions en santé reproductive auprès des adolescents et des jeunes ont enregistré peu de succès en ce qui concerne le changement des comportements sexuels. Ces interventions se focalisent souvent sur l’individu, et négligent les environnements sociaux et culturels dans lesquels se forge le vécu de la sexualité chez les jeunes. Un de ces agents de socialisation est la famille, où les individus naissent, grandissent, et sont socialisés selon les valeurs et normes en vigueur. Fort de ce constat, l’objectif principal de la présente thèse est de resituer l’environnement familial au cœur des débats en santé reproductive chez les adolescents et les jeunes en Afrique subsaharienne. Trois questions spécifiques sont examinées dans cette thèse. Premièrement, elle aborde les associations entre les structures familiales et l’entrée en sexualité. Deuxièmement, elle analyse leurs influences sur les connaissances des modes de transmission et des moyens de prévention du VIH/SIDA. Troisièmement, elle cherche à déterminer les forces potentielles dans les familles dites « à risque » (ayant au plus un parent biologique) à partir de la théorie de résilience selon laquelle des facteurs familiaux et contextuels peuvent atténuer les comportements sexuels à risque chez les adolescents et jeunes. Cette thèse démontre substantiellement que vivre avec ses deux parents biologiques, la nature des relations entre parents/tuteurs et le jeune et un niveau élevé du contrôle parental sont significativement associés à de faibles risques des rapports sexuels prémaritaux. Par contre, les unions polygamiques, un statut socioéconomique élevé du ménage, et le fait d’être orphelin augmentent significativement le risque de rapports sexuels prémaritaux. L’étude démontre aussi que l’environnement familial et la communication sur la sexualité, aussi bien avec les parents/tuteurs qu’avec les pairs, jouent un rôle fondamental dans l’acquisition des connaissances correctes des modes de transmission et de prévention du VIH/SIDA. Néanmoins, le rôle des parents/tuteurs sur l’acquisition des connaissances sur le VIH/SIDA s’avère indirect puisqu’elle repose sur une hypothèse implicite. Seule une mesure directe des connaissances des parents sur les modes de transmission et les moyens de prévention peut mieux rendre compte de cette association. Les résultats obtenus à partir de la théorie de résilience indiquent, dans chaque type de familles, que la qualité des relations entre les parents/tuteurs et le jeune est significativement associée à une faible probabilité de comportement sexuel à risque, défini comme étant la cooccurrence de plusieurs partenaires sexuels au cours de 12 derniers mois et de non-utilisation du condom. Par contre, le contrôle parental est associé à une faible probabilité de comportement sexuel à risque seulement dans les familles à deux parents biologiques. Ce résultat suggère que l’influence du contrôle parental baisse une fois que les jeunes ont eu une expérience sexuelle. Les interventions en santé reproductive devraient promouvoir chez les parents/tuteurs les facteurs familiaux susceptibles de réduire les comportements sexuels à risque.In spite of numerous reproductive health interventions in sub-Saharan Africa, the trilogy “STDs/HIV/AIDS - Unwanted pregnancies - Abortion” remains at the highest rates compared with other regions of the world. In fact, youth-oriented reproductive health programmes did not work adequately in sub-Saharan Africa, as regards changes in risky sexual behaviors. These interventions have often focused on individuals, and have neglected socio-cultural environments in which sexual behaviors are shaped. One of the most influential contexts is the family in which young people are born, grow up, learn and internalize norms and values about socially acceptable behaviors and sexual conduct. In order to fill this gap, this research aims to address the centrality of family structure in reproductive health debate in sub-Saharan Africa where little is known about its potential influences on sexual behaviors. Three issues are of interest in this thesis. Firstly, the study examines the interplay of family structure and premarital sexual intercourse. Secondly, it addresses the role of family structures in shaping accurate and inaccurate HIV/AIDS knowledge of transmission routes and preventive strategies. Thirdly, using the resilience theory, the study aims to determine the strengths within families “at-risk” that can prevent young people from engaging in risky sexual behaviors. The research substantiates that living in two-parent families, higher levels of parent/guardian monitoring, and good parent/guardian-youth relationships are associated with lower rates of premarital sexual intercourse. By contrast, polygamous families, parent/guardian-youth communication about sexuality, higher household socioeconomic status, change in family structure, and orphanhood were significantly associated with higher rates of premarital sexual intercourse. The study also finds that family structure as well as family/peer communication about sexuality is key explanatory variable on which HIV education and prevention efforts should be directed at. A more direct effect of family structure must be addressed in future research, using direct measures of parent/guardian’s HIV knowledge. Finally, using the resilience theory, this thesis finds that good parent/guardian-youth relationships are associated with lower rates of risky sexual behaviors, captured by the co-occurrence of multi-partnership and condom non-use in the last 12 months preceding the surveys, irrespective of the type of family. Parental monitoring showed a protective effect only in two-parent families. This finding suggests that when young people are sexually experienced, parental monitoring becomes less efficient than when they are not. HIV interventions must put emphasis on these factors that help to reduce risky sexual behaviors among young people even among those living in the so-called “at-risk” families

The Role of Leadership in Sub-Saharan Africa in Promoting Maternal and Child Health

Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) continues to face adverse maternal and child health (MCH) outcomes compared to other regions of the world. Previous research showed that SSA countries did not reach Millennium Development Goals (MDG)-4 and MDG-5. To further our understanding of levels and correlates of MCH outcomes, numerous studies have focused on socioeconomic factors, both at individual, household, and community levels. This chapter adopted a different approach and emphasized the role of leadership at regional, national, and local levels to improve MCH outcomes in SSA countries. Overall, the chapter demonstrated that without an enlightened leadership, SSA countries will be lagging behind SDG-3 targets. Additionally, evidence to guide policymaking in most countries is lacking mainly due to lack of sound data to specifically meet the needs of policymakers. There is an urgent need to focus on Research and Development (R&D) and Innovation. To achieve this goal, a crucial shift in leadership is compulsory

Global, regional, and national incidence and mortality for HIV, tuberculosis, and malaria during 1990–2013: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013

BACKGROUND: The Millennium Declaration in 2000 brought special global attention to HIV, tuberculosis, and malaria through the formulation of Millennium Development Goal (MDG) 6. The Global Burden of Disease 2013 study provides a consistent and comprehensive approach to disease estimation for between 1990 and 2013, and an opportunity to assess whether accelerated progress has occured since the Millennium Declaration. METHODS: To estimate incidence and mortality for HIV, we used the UNAIDS Spectrum model appropriately modified based on a systematic review of available studies of mortality with and without antiretroviral therapy (ART). For concentrated epidemics, we calibrated Spectrum models to fit vital registration data corrected for misclassification of HIV deaths. In generalised epidemics, we minimised a loss function to select epidemic curves most consistent with prevalence data and demographic data for all-cause mortality. We analysed counterfactual scenarios for HIV to assess years of life saved through prevention of mother-to-child transmission (PMTCT) and ART. For tuberculosis, we analysed vital registration and verbal autopsy data to estimate mortality using cause of death ensemble modelling. We analysed data for corrected case-notifications, expert opinions on the case-detection rate, prevalence surveys, and estimated cause-specific mortality using Bayesian meta-regression to generate consistent trends in all parameters. We analysed malaria mortality and incidence using an updated cause of death database, a systematic analysis of verbal autopsy validation studies for malaria, and recent studies (2010-13) of incidence, drug resistance, and coverage of insecticide-treated bednets. FINDINGS: Globally in 2013, there were 1·8 million new HIV infections (95% uncertainty interval 1·7 million to 2·1 million), 29·2 million prevalent HIV cases (28·1 to 31·7), and 1·3 million HIV deaths (1·3 to 1·5). At the peak of the epidemic in 2005, HIV caused 1·7 million deaths (1·6 million to 1·9 million). Concentrated epidemics in Latin America and eastern Europe are substantially smaller than previously estimated. Through interventions including PMTCT and ART, 19·1 million life-years (16·6 million to 21·5 million) have been saved, 70·3% (65·4 to 76·1) in developing countries. From 2000 to 2011, the ratio of development assistance for health for HIV to years of life saved through intervention was US$4498 in developing countries. Including in HIV-positive individuals, all-form tuberculosis incidence was 7·5 million (7·4 million to 7·7 million), prevalence was 11·9 million (11·6 million to 12·2 million), and number of deaths was 1·4 million (1·3 million to 1·5 million) in 2013. In the same year and in only individuals who were HIV-negative, all-form tuberculosis incidence was 7·1 million (6·9 million to 7·3 million), prevalence was 11·2 million (10·8 million to 11·6 million), and number of deaths was 1·3 million (1·2 million to 1·4 million). Annualised rates of change (ARC) for incidence, prevalence, and death became negative after 2000. Tuberculosis in HIV-negative individuals disproportionately occurs in men and boys (versus women and girls); 64·0% of cases (63·6 to 64·3) and 64·7% of deaths (60·8 to 70·3). Globally, malaria cases and deaths grew rapidly from 1990 reaching a peak of 232 million cases (143 million to 387 million) in 2003 and 1·2 million deaths (1·1 million to 1·4 million) in 2004. Since 2004, child deaths from malaria in sub-Saharan Africa have decreased by 31·5% (15·7 to 44·1). Outside of Africa, malaria mortality has been steadily decreasing since 1990. INTERPRETATION: Our estimates of the number of people living with HIV are 18·7% smaller than UNAIDS's estimates in 2012. The number of people living with malaria is larger than estimated by WHO. The number of people living with HIV, tuberculosis, or malaria have all decreased since 2000. At the global level, upward trends for malaria and HIV deaths have been reversed and declines in tuberculosis deaths have accelerated. 101 countries (74 of which are developing) still have increasing HIV incidence. Substantial progress since the Millennium Declaration is an encouraging sign of the effect of global action. FUNDING: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation

Timing of Premarital Intercourse in Bandjoun (West Cameroon)

This article examined the effects of family environment on the risks of premarital intercourse for male and female youth. Previous research in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) on the linkages between family structures and sexual debut mainly utilized cross-sectional data. In a sample drawn from Cameroon Family and Health Survey ( N = 2,166), descriptive and multivariate results showed that youth who resided in nuclear two-parent families, those who reported higher levels of parental monitoring and higher quality of parent–child relationships during childhood and/or adolescence, had significantly lower rates of premarital intercourse. Polygynous families, parent–child communication, orphanhood, and change in family structure were significantly associated with higher rates of premarital intercourse. Programmatic implications for reproductive health interventions in SSA are discussed

Global, regional, and national disability-adjusted life-years (DALYs) for 315 diseases and injuries and healthy life expectancy (HALE), 1990-2015: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2015.

BACKGROUND: Healthy life expectancy (HALE) and disability-adjusted life-years (DALYs) provide summary measures of health across geographies and time that can inform assessments of epidemiological patterns and health system performance, help to prioritise investments in research and development, and monitor progress toward the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). We aimed to provide updated HALE and DALYs for geographies worldwide and evaluate how disease burden changes with development. METHODS: We used results from the Global Burden of Diseases, Injuries, and Risk Factors Study 2015 (GBD 2015) for all-cause mortality, cause-specific mortality, and non-fatal disease burden to derive HALE and DALYs by sex for 195 countries and territories from 1990 to 2015. We calculated DALYs by summing years of life lost (YLLs) and years of life lived with disability (YLDs) for each geography, age group, sex, and year. We estimated HALE using the Sullivan method, which draws from age-specific death rates and YLDs per capita. We then assessed how observed levels of DALYs and HALE differed from expected trends calculated with the Socio-demographic Index (SDI), a composite indicator constructed from measures of income per capita, average years of schooling, and total fertility rate. FINDINGS: Total global DALYs remained largely unchanged from 1990 to 2015, with decreases in communicable, neonatal, maternal, and nutritional (Group 1) disease DALYs offset by increased DALYs due to non-communicable diseases (NCDs). Much of this epidemiological transition was caused by changes in population growth and ageing, but it was accelerated by widespread improvements in SDI that also correlated strongly with the increasing importance of NCDs. Both total DALYs and age-standardised DALY rates due to most Group 1 causes significantly decreased by 2015, and although total burden climbed for the majority of NCDs, age-standardised DALY rates due to NCDs declined. Nonetheless, age-standardised DALY rates due to several high-burden NCDs (including osteoarthritis, drug use disorders, depression, diabetes, congenital birth defects, and skin, oral, and sense organ diseases) either increased or remained unchanged, leading to increases in their relative ranking in many geographies. From 2005 to 2015, HALE at birth increased by an average of 2·9 years (95% uncertainty interval 2·9-3·0) for men and 3·5 years (3·4-3·7) for women, while HALE at age 65 years improved by 0·85 years (0·78-0·92) and 1·2 years (1·1-1·3), respectively. Rising SDI was associated with consistently higher HALE and a somewhat smaller proportion of life spent with functional health loss; however, rising SDI was related to increases in total disability. Many countries and territories in central America and eastern sub-Saharan Africa had increasingly lower rates of disease burden than expected given their SDI. At the same time, a subset of geographies recorded a growing gap between observed and expected levels of DALYs, a trend driven mainly by rising burden due to war, interpersonal violence, and various NCDs. INTERPRETATION: Health is improving globally, but this means more populations are spending more time with functional health loss, an absolute expansion of morbidity. The proportion of life spent in ill health decreases somewhat with increasing SDI, a relative compression of morbidity, which supports continued efforts to elevate personal income, improve education, and limit fertility. Our analysis of DALYs and HALE and their relationship to SDI represents a robust framework on which to benchmark geography-specific health performance and SDG progress. Country-specific drivers of disease burden, particularly for causes with higher-than-expected DALYs, should inform financial and research investments, prevention efforts, health policies, and health system improvement initiatives for all countries along the development continuum. FUNDING: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation

Global, regional, and national comparative risk assessment of 79 behavioural, environmental and occupational, and metabolic risks or clusters of risks, 1990-2015: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2015

Forouzanfar MH, Afshin A, Alexander LT, et al. Global, regional, and national comparative risk assessment of 79 behavioural, environmental and occupational, and metabolic risks or clusters of risks, 1990-2015: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2015. LANCET. 2016;388(10053):1659-1724.Background The Global Burden of Diseases, Injuries, and Risk Factors Study 2015 provides an up-to-date synthesis of the evidence for risk factor exposure and the attributable burden of disease. By providing national and subnational assessments spanning the past 25 years, this study can inform debates on the importance of addressing risks in context. Methods We used the comparative risk assessment framework developed for previous iterations of the Global Burden of Disease Study to estimate attributable deaths, disability-adjusted life-years (DALYs), and trends in exposure by age group, sex, year, and geography for 79 behavioural, environmental and occupational, and metabolic risks or clusters of risks from 1990 to 2015. This study included 388 risk-outcome pairs that met World Cancer Research Fund-defined criteria for convincing or probable evidence. We extracted relative risk and exposure estimates from randomised controlled trials, cohorts, pooled cohorts, household surveys, census data, satellite data, and other sources. We used statistical models to pool data, adjust for bias, and incorporate covariates. We developed a metric that allows comparisons of exposure across risk factors-the summary exposure value. Using the counterfactual scenario of theoretical minimum risk level, we estimated the portion of deaths and DALYs that could be attributed to a given risk. We decomposed trends in attributable burden into contributions from population growth, population age structure, risk exposure, and risk-deleted cause-specific DALY rates. We characterised risk exposure in relation to a Socio-demographic Index (SDI). Findings Between 1990 and 2015, global exposure to unsafe sanitation, household air pollution, childhood underweight, childhood stunting, and smoking each decreased by more than 25%. Global exposure for several occupational risks, high body-mass index (BMI), and drug use increased by more than 25% over the same period. All risks jointly evaluated in 2015 accounted for 57.8% (95% CI 56.6-58.8) of global deaths and 41.2% (39.8-42.8) of DALYs. In 2015, the ten largest contributors to global DALYs among Level 3 risks were high systolic blood pressure (211.8 million [192.7 million to 231.1 million] global DALYs), smoking (148.6 million [134.2 million to 163.1 million]), high fasting plasma glucose (143.1 million [125.1 million to 163.5 million]), high BMI (120.1 million [83.8 million to 158.4 million]), childhood undernutrition (113.3 million [103.9 million to 123.4 million]), ambient particulate matter (103.1 million [90.8 million to 115.1 million]), high total cholesterol (88.7 million [74.6 million to 105.7 million]), household air pollution (85.6 million [66.7 million to 106.1 million]), alcohol use (85.0 million [77.2 million to 93.0 million]), and diets high in sodium (83.0 million [49.3 million to 127.5 million]). From 1990 to 2015, attributable DALYs declined for micronutrient deficiencies, childhood undernutrition, unsafe sanitation and water, and household air pollution; reductions in risk-deleted DALY rates rather than reductions in exposure drove these declines. Rising exposure contributed to notable increases in attributable DALYs from high BMI, high fasting plasma glucose, occupational carcinogens, and drug use. Environmental risks and childhood undernutrition declined steadily with SDI; low physical activity, high BMI, and high fasting plasma glucose increased with SDI. In 119 countries, metabolic risks, such as high BMI and fasting plasma glucose, contributed the most attributable DALYs in 2015. Regionally, smoking still ranked among the leading five risk factors for attributable DALYs in 109 countries; childhood underweight and unsafe sex remained primary drivers of early death and disability in much of sub-Saharan Africa. Interpretation Declines in some key environmental risks have contributed to declines in critical infectious diseases. Some risks appear to be invariant to SDI. Increasing risks, including high BMI, high fasting plasma glucose, drug use, and some occupational exposures, contribute to rising burden from some conditions, but also provide opportunities for intervention. Some highly preventable risks, such as smoking, remain major causes of attributable DALYs, even as exposure is declining. Public policy makers need to pay attention to the risks that are increasingly major contributors to global burden. Copyright (C) The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd

Measuring the health-related Sustainable Development Goals in 188 countries : a baseline analysis from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2015

Background In September, 2015, the UN General Assembly established the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The SDGs specify 17 universal goals, 169 targets, and 230 indicators leading up to 2030. We provide an analysis of 33 health-related SDG indicators based on the Global Burden of Diseases, Injuries, and Risk Factors Study 2015 (GBD 2015). Methods We applied statistical methods to systematically compiled data to estimate the performance of 33 health-related SDG indicators for 188 countries from 1990 to 2015. We rescaled each indicator on a scale from 0 (worst observed value between 1990 and 2015) to 100 (best observed). Indices representing all 33 health-related SDG indicators (health-related SDG index), health-related SDG indicators included in the Millennium Development Goals (MDG index), and health-related indicators not included in the MDGs (non-MDG index) were computed as the geometric mean of the rescaled indicators by SDG target. We used spline regressions to examine the relations between the Socio-demographic Index (SDI, a summary measure based on average income per person, educational attainment, and total fertility rate) and each of the health-related SDG indicators and indices. Findings In 2015, the median health-related SDG index was 59.3 (95% uncertainty interval 56.8-61.8) and varied widely by country, ranging from 85.5 (84.2-86.5) in Iceland to 20.4 (15.4-24.9) in Central African Republic. SDI was a good predictor of the health-related SDG index (r(2) = 0.88) and the MDG index (r(2) = 0.2), whereas the non-MDG index had a weaker relation with SDI (r(2) = 0.79). Between 2000 and 2015, the health-related SDG index improved by a median of 7.9 (IQR 5.0-10.4), and gains on the MDG index (a median change of 10.0 [6.7-13.1]) exceeded that of the non-MDG index (a median change of 5.5 [2.1-8.9]). Since 2000, pronounced progress occurred for indicators such as met need with modern contraception, under-5 mortality, and neonatal mortality, as well as the indicator for universal health coverage tracer interventions. Moderate improvements were found for indicators such as HIV and tuberculosis incidence, minimal changes for hepatitis B incidence took place, and childhood overweight considerably worsened. Interpretation GBD provides an independent, comparable avenue for monitoring progress towards the health-related SDGs. Our analysis not only highlights the importance of income, education, and fertility as drivers of health improvement but also emphasises that investments in these areas alone will not be sufficient. Although considerable progress on the health-related MDG indicators has been made, these gains will need to be sustained and, in many cases, accelerated to achieve the ambitious SDG targets. The minimal improvement in or worsening of health-related indicators beyond the MDGs highlight the need for additional resources to effectively address the expanded scope of the health-related SDGs.Peer reviewe

Factors associated with the utilization of antenatal care and prevention of mother-to-child HIV transmission services in Ethiopia: applying a count regression model

Abstract Background Prevention of Mother-to-Child HIV Transmission (PMTCT) coverage has been low in Ethiopia and the service has been implemented in a fragmented manner. Solutions to this problem have mainly been sought on the supply-side in the form of improved management and allocation of limited resources. However, this approach largely ignores the demand-side factors associated with low PMTCT coverage in the country. The study assesses the factors associated with the utilization of PMTCT services taking into consideration counts of visits to antenatal care (ANC) services in urban high-HIV prevalence and rural low-HIV prevalence settings in Ethiopia. Methods A multivariate regression model was employed to identify significant factors associated with PMTCT service utilization. Poisson and negative binomial regression models were applied, considering the number of ANC visits as a dependent variable. The explanatory variables were age; educational status; type of occupation; decision-making power in the household; living in proximity to educated people; a neighborhood with good welfare services; location (urban high-HIV prevalence and rural low-HIV prevalence); transportation accessibility; walking distance (in minutes); and household income status. The alpha dispersion test (a) was performed to measure the goodness-of-fit of the model. Significant results were reported at p-values of < 0.05 and < 0.001. Results Household income, socio-economic setting (urban high-HIV prevalence and rural low-HIV prevalence) and walking distance (in minutes) had a statistically significant relationship with the number of ANC visits by pregnant women (p < 0.05). A pregnant woman from an urban high-HIV prevalence setting would be expected to make 34% more ANC visits (counts) than her rural low-HIV prevalence counterparts (p < 0.05). Holding other variables constant, a unit increase in household income would increase the expected ANC visits by 0.004%. An increase in walking distance by a unit (a minute) would decrease the number of ANC visits by 0.001(p < 0.001). Conclusion Long walking distance, low household income and living in a rural setting are the significant factors associated with low PMTCT service utilization. The primary strategies for a holistic policy to improve ANC/PMTCT utilization should thus include improving the geographical accessibility of ANC/PMTCT services, expanding household welfare and paying more attention to remote rural areas