Insect pathogens as biological control agents: back to the future

The development and use of entomopathogens as classical, conservation and augmentative biological control agents have included a number of successes and some setbacks in the past 15 years. In this forum paper we present current information on development, use and future directions of insect-specific viruses, bacteria, fungi and nematodes as components of integrated pest management strategies for control of arthropod pests of crops, forests, urban habitats, and insects of medical and veterinary importance. Insect pathogenic viruses are a fruitful source of MCAs, particularly for the control of lepidopteran pests. Most research is focused on the baculoviruses, important pathogens of some globally important pests for which control has become difficult due to either pesticide resistance or pressure to reduce pesticide residues. Baculoviruses are accepted as safe, readily mass produced, highly pathogenic and easily formulated and applied control agents. New baculovirus products are appearing in many countries and gaining an increased market share. However, the absence of a practical in vitro mass production system, generally higher production costs, limited post application persistence, slow rate of kill and high host specificity currently contribute to restricted use in pest control. Overcoming these limitations are key research areas for which progress could open up use of insect viruses to much larger markets. A small number of entomopathogenic bacteria have been commercially developed for control of insect pests. These include several Bacillus thuringiensis sub-species, Lysinibacillus (Bacillus) sphaericus, Paenibacillus spp. and Serratia entomophila. B. thuringiensis sub-species kurstaki is the most widely used for control of pest insects of crops and forests, and B. thuringiensis sub-species israelensis and L. sphaericus are the primary pathogens used for medically important pests including dipteran vectors,. These pathogens combine the advantages of chemical pesticides and microbial control agents (MCAs): they are fast acting, easy to produce at a relatively low cost, easy to formulate, have a long shelf life and allow delivery using conventional application equipment and systemics (i.e. in transgenic plants). Unlike broad spectrum chemical pesticides, B. thuringiensis toxins are selective and negative environmental impact is very limited. Of the several commercially produced MCAs, B. thuringiensis (Bt) has more than 50% of market share. Extensive research, particularly on the molecular mode of action of Bt toxins, has been conducted over the past two decades. The Bt genes used in insect-resistant transgenic crops belong to the Cry and vegetative insecticidal protein families of toxins. Bt has been highly efficacious in pest management of corn and cotton, drastically reducing the amount of broad spectrum chemical insecticides used while being safe for consumers and non-target organisms. Despite successes, the adoption of Bt crops has not been without controversy. Although there is a lack of scientific evidence regarding their detrimental effects, this controversy has created the widespread perception in some quarters that Bt crops are dangerous for the environment. In addition to discovery of more efficacious isolates and toxins, an increase in the use of Bt products and transgenes will rely on innovations in formulation, better delivery systems and ultimately, wider public acceptance of transgenic plants expressing insect-specific Bt toxins. Fungi are ubiquitous natural entomopathogens that often cause epizootics in host insects and possess many desirable traits that favor their development as MCAs. Presently, commercialized microbial pesticides based on entomopathogenic fungi largely occupy niche markets. A variety of molecular tools and technologies have recently allowed reclassification of numerous species based on phylogeny, as well as matching anamorphs (asexual forms) and teleomorphs (sexual forms) of several entomopathogenic taxa in the Phylum Ascomycota. Although these fungi have been traditionally regarded exclusively as pathogens of arthropods, recent studies have demonstrated that they occupy a great diversity of ecological niches. Entomopathogenic fungi are now known to be plant endophytes, plant disease antagonists, rhizosphere colonizers, and plant growth promoters. These newly understood attributes provide possibilities to use fungi in multiple roles. In addition to arthropod pest control, some fungal species could simultaneously suppress plant pathogens and plant parasitic nematodes as well as promote plant growth. A greater understanding of fungal ecology is needed to define their roles in nature and evaluate their limitations in biological control. More efficient mass production, formulation and delivery systems must be devised to supply an ever increasing market. More testing under field conditions is required to identify effects of biotic and abiotic factors on efficacy and persistence. Lastly, greater attention must be paid to their use within integrated pest management programs; in particular, strategies that incorporate fungi in combination with arthropod predators and parasitoids need to be defined to ensure compatibility and maximize efficacy. Entomopathogenic nematodes (EPNs) in the genera Steinernema and Heterorhabditis are potent MCAs. Substantial progress in research and application of EPNs has been made in the past decade. The number of target pests shown to be susceptible to EPNs has continued to increase. Advancements in this regard primarily have been made in soil habitats where EPNs are shielded from environmental extremes, but progress has also been made in use of nematodes in above-ground habitats owing to the development of improved protective formulations. Progress has also resulted from advancements in nematode production technology using both in vivo and in vitro systems; novel application methods such as distribution of infected host cadavers; and nematode strain improvement via enhancement and stabilization of beneficial traits. Innovative research has also yielded insights into the fundamentals of EPN biology including major advances in genomics, nematode-bacterial symbiont interactions, ecological relationships, and foraging behavior. Additional research is needed to leverage these basic findings toward direct improvements in microbial control

Prise en charge de la douleur induite par la vaccination chez le nourrisson (enquête quantitative auprès des médecins généralistes de l'Allier sur les moyens de prévention de la douleur vaccinale)

La vaccination du nourrisson est un geste courant en médecine libérale. Celle-ci est responsable d'une douleur induite potentiellement à l'origine d'effets secondaires à plus ou moins long terme. Il s'agit d'une douleur prévisible qui peut donc être accessible à l'utilisation de moyens préventifs. L'objectif de cette thèse est donc d'étudier la prise en charge de la douleur lors du geste vaccinal chez le nourrisson, en questionnant les médecins généralistes sur leur pratique habituelle de la vaccination et leur utilisation des moyens de prévention. Un questionnaire anonyme adressé par voie postale à 317 médecins généralistes libéraux dans l'Allier, a permis de réaliser une étude quantitative descriptive. Le taux de réponse est de 66,8%. Les moyens médicamenteux en prévention de la douleur vaccinale ne sont pas jugés nécessaires par 37% des médecins de notre étude. Les obstacles à leur utilisation les plus fréquemment retrouvés sont une minimisation de cette douleur, l'inefficacité présumée des moyens médicamenteux, la crainte de leurs effets indésirables et le coût estimé trop élevé. Certains moyens de prévention sont rarement utilisés par les médecins de notre étude (allaitement, solutions sucrées), d'autres sont utilisés plus couramment (Distraction, EMLA®, Succion non nutritive). Le paracétamol reste utilisé souvent ou occasionnellement par 37% des médecins, malgré l'absence de preuve d'efficacité en prévention de la douleur vaccinale. Le quart supéro-externe de la fesse est le site d'injection estimé le moins douloureux par 35% des médecins. Par ailleurs, l'attitude parentale ainsi que le type de vaccin sont souvent estimé plus en lien avec la douleur que la technique vaccinale elle-même. Les parents ont un rôle important dans notre étude dans la prise en charge de la douleur vaccinale car ils influencent les médecins sur le choix d'utiliser ou non certains moyens préventifs. Notre étude retrouve une hétérogénéité des pratiques concernant les moyens de prévention de la douleur vaccinale. Bien qu'un certain nombre de moyens aient prouvé leur efficacité dans la prise en charge de la douleur, ils sont globalement sous utilisés, soit par septicisme de la part des médecins sur leur véritable efficacité ou utilité, soit par manque d'habitude. Certains aspects techniques de la réalisation du geste vaccinal ainsi que l'attitude des parents peuvent également influencer la douleur ressentie lors de la vaccination. Afin de faciliter la prise en charge de l'acte vaccinal, nous avons donc proposé un guide à destination des médecins sur les moyens de prévention de la douleur induite par la vaccination chez le nourrisson.CLERMONT FD-BCIU-Santé (631132104) / SudocSudocFranceF

Le Saint-Lois du Bas Moyen Âge à la période contemporaine

International audienc

Des premières traces à la fin de l'Acheuléen dans la Préhistoire de la France

International audienceDiscoveries of the two last decades in Eurasia renew the knowledge on the earliest evidence of occupation. France widely contributes to the anderstanding of these periods, and since the publication in 1976 of the three volumes of La Préhistoire Française, the number of in situ sites with well-dated sequences has greatly increased. This state of knowledge voluntary focuses on the key sites discovered since 1976, some being still in ongoing excavations, or largely published. The data is obviously not complete. It is however a strong overview of the major sites and the avialable interdisciplinary patterns. Our chronological framework depends on the current data, from around 1.5 Ma for the earliest ages. We have selected the latest sites with Acheulean-type series but also series without a few bifaces. Our chronological upper border is the transition MIS6-MIS5.Theearliest traces of occupations are located on the southern half of France, from the Massif central to the Loire Basin and the Mediterranean coast. Ages vary between 1.5 and 1 Ma. Then, since 700 ka, the number of sites increases, some with bifaces, and are located overall national territory. It is due to the development of fieldworks through research programs or public-construction projets. They helped discover new open-air sites for instance in the Somme, Loire and Aquitaine Basns. Morever, vace sites were also revised by new research projets and fieldworks. The chapiter is both chronological and geographical. France has been divised in areas according to geological and hydrographical features : North, from Brittany to the North of the Seine River and the centre of the Paris Basin; South-West including the Aquitaine Basin to the Pyrenees Mountains and the Charente; Massif central and the Loire Basin; South-East including the Rhône Basin and the Mediterranean coast.Les découvertes des deux dernières décennies sur l'ensemble de l'Eurasie renouvellent nos connaissances sur les plus anciens peuplements. La France contribue largement à alimenter les connaissances de ces périodes, et depuis la publication des trois tomes de La Préhistoire Française en 1976, les gisements in situ avec des séquences bien datées se sont multipliées. Le bilan des connaissances s'est volontairement focalisé sur les sites majeurs in situ découverts depuis 1976, certains étant encore en cours de fouilles, d'autres ayant été largement publiés depuis 1976. S'il n'est pas exhaustif, il est représentatif et s'appuie sur un bilan interdisciplinaire des données disponibles. Notre fourchette chronologique dépend des données actuelles, soit plus d'1,5 Ma pour la limite supérieure. Pour son extension la plus récente, nous avons retenu les sites les plus tardifs ayant livré des assemblages avec des bifaces de type "Acheuléen" mais aussi quelques sites avec peu ou pas de bifaces jusqu'à la transition MIS6-MIS5.Les plus anciennes traces de peuplement se concentrent sur la moitiés sud de le France entre Massif central, bassin de la Loire et côte méditerranéenne, avec des occupations entre 1,5 et 1 Ma. Puis, à partir de 700 Ka, les sites deviennent beaucoup plus nombreux, certains livrant des séries à biface et se répartissent sur l'ensemble du territoire. Ces données s'appuient sur les fouilles programmées ou préventives qui ont permis d'argumenter considérablement le corpus des sites de plein air en France et sur les bassins de la Somme, la Loire et aquitain. Un grand nombre de sites en grottes ont également été actualisés.Notre présentation de ce bilan est chronologique et géographique. La France a été découpée en plusieurs zones géographiques obéissant à une logique orohydrographique et géologique : le Nord, de la Bretagne au nord de la Seine et au centre du Bassin Parisien ; le Sud-Ouest incluant le bassin aquitain, jusqu'aux Pyrénées, et les Charentes ; le Massif central et le bassin hydrographique de la Loire ; le Sud-Est incluant le bassin du Rhône et la côte méditerranéenne