Luonto oppimisympäristönä: luonto-opetuksen järjestäminen alakoulussa

Tiivistelmä. Oppiminen voi tapahtua monissa eri paikoissa ja oppimisympäristöjen moninaisuudesta puhutaan yleisesti paljon. Siksi olisikin oleellista tutkia, mikä saa opettajat jäämään luokkaan, kun luonnonympäristöt tarjoavat itsessään aktiivisia oppimisympäristöjä opetukseen. Tämän vuoksi opettajan rooli luonto-opetuksessa on tulevaisuuden tärkeä tutkimuskohde. Valtaosa aiemmasta tutkimuksesta sijoittuu varhaiskasvatuksessa toteutettavaan luonto-opetukseen sekä pienten lasten luontosuhteen kehittämiseen, mutta tässä tutkielmassa pyrimme tuottamaan katsauksen siitä, mistä ulottuvuuksista alakoulun luonto-opetus koostuu ja miten sitä voidaan järjestää. Luonto itsessään ja oppiminen omien havaintojen ja konkreettisen tekemisen kautta on myös tärkeä osa omaa elämäämme, mikä vaikutti aiheen valintaan ja tutkimuskysymysten muotoutumiseen. Luonto-opetus on menetelmä, jota haluaisimme oppia paremmin ja harjoittaa omassa ammatissa. Koimme oleelliseksi rajata tutkimuksen fokuksen luonnossa tapahtuvaan opetukseen ja sen järjestämiseen emmekä näin keskity rakennettuihin ympäristöihin, vaikka ne ovatkin oppimisympäristöinä tärkeitä. Emme myöskään keskity tutkimuksessamme Suomen alakoulujen sijainnillisiin eroihin, vaikka ne saattavatkin osaltaan vaikuttaa luonto-opetuksen järjestämisen helppouteen. Tutkielmamme teoreettinen viitekehys nojaa Palmerin (1998) puumalliin, sillä se korostaa ympäristökasvatuksen kokonaisvaltaista ymmärrystä ja siihen liittyviä taitoja. Sisällytimme luonto-opetuksen näkökulmaksi myös tutkivan oppimisen. Luonnonympäristöt sisältävät monenlaisia mahdollisuuksia havainnointiin, tutkimiseen sekä pitkiin opetuskokonaisuuksiin ja tutkivan oppimisen menetelmälle tällainen ympäristö on tuottoisa. Alakoulun luonto-opetuksesta on vielä suhteellisen vähän aikaisempaa tutkimusta verrattuna siihen, kuinka paljon siitä on mainintoja esimerkiksi uusimmassa Opetussuunnitelmassa. Etenkin Suomessa luonto-opetuksen kohdalla on selkeä tutkimuksellinen aukko. Tätä aihetta tutkimalla, voidaan parhaimmillaan vaikuttaa opettajien asenteisiin ja valmiuksiin järjestää opetusta luonnonympäristössä

”Tätä työtä voisi tehdä kellon ympäri eikä sekään riittäisi”:luokanopettajien käsityksiä työtehtävistä ja ajankäytöstä työssään

Tiivistelmä. Viime aikoina luokanopettajien työmäärä ja työssä jaksaminen ovat olleet yleisiä puheenaiheita. Mediassa ja keskusteluissa on kuvailtu opettajien kokevan työnsä olevan kuormittavaa ja siihen on havaittu kohdistuvan monenlaisia paineita ja vaatimuksia eri suunnilta. Koulun toiminta on myös laajentunut yhä enemmän perinteisen koulumiljöön ulkopuolelle, joten ihmisillä voi olla eriäviä käsityksiä siitä, mikä koulun tai opettajan vastuualueisiin todella kuuluu, sillä työtehtävien kirjo on hyvin laaja. Näistä syistä opettajien olisi tärkeää tunnistaa, mihin he voivat työn rajansa piirtää. Tässä tutkimuksessa keskitymme tutkimaan luokanopettajien käsityksiä työtehtäviensä painottumisesta ja sitä, miten opettajan työaika jakaantuu näiden työtehtävien välillä. Selvitämme opettajien näkemyksiä omasta ajanhallinnastaan, sekä millaisia ratkaisuehdotuksia heillä on tarjota ajankäytön haasteisiin. Tutkimus toteutetaan fenomenografisena tutkimuksena ja aineistonkeruumenetelmänä hyödynnetään kyselylomaketta. Luokanopettajan työ on Suomessa melko autonomista, joten myös omasta suoriutumisesta ja jaksamisesta on pidettävä itse huolta. Tämän tutkimuksen tuloksissa nähdään, että opettajien työssä suoriutumiseen ja jaksamiseen vaikuttavat monet rakenteelliset ja kontekstuaaliset tekijät, mutta hyvällä ajanhallinnalla siihen voidaan jotenkin myös itse vaikuttaa. Tutkimuksestamme käy ilmi, että moni opettaja kokee riittämättömyyden tunteita työssään. Näyttää siltä, että työhön halutaan panostaa paljon, mutta aikaa tai resursseja ei kuitenkaan ole riittävästi käytettävissä. Kun työpäivät pitkittyvät jatkuvasti, voi opettajan jaksaminen taas heikentyä. Tällä tutkimuksella voi olla annettavaa opettajille, sillä omaa työtä ei välttämättä tule tarkasteltua tai kyseenalaistettua. Lisäksi he, jotka haluavat ymmärtää nykypäivän opettajan ammattia syvemmin, voivat saada uusia näkökulmia tämän tutkimuksen avulla. Tulevaisuuden kannalta on tärkeää pohtia, miten opettajia voidaan tukea paremmin pitämään yllä kasvatuksen ja opetuksen laatua, jota suomalaisessa yhteiskunnassa arvostetaan

Water and methanol in low-mass protostellar outflows: gas-phase synthesis, ice sputtering and destruction

Water in outflows from protostars originates either as a result of gas-phase synthesis from atomic oxygen at T ≳ 200 K, or from sputtered ice mantles containing water ice. We aim to quantify the contribution of the two mechanisms that lead to water in outflows, by comparing observations of gas-phase water to methanol (a grain surface product) towards three low-mass protostars in NGC 1333. In doing so, we also quantify the amount of methanol destroyed in outflows. To do this, we make use of James Clerk Maxwell Telescope and Herschel-Heterodyne Instrument for the Far-Infrared data of H2O, CH3OH and CO emission lines and compare them to RADEX non-local thermodynamic equilibrium excitation simulations. We find up to one order of magnitude decrease in the column density ratio of CH3OH over H2O as the velocity increases in the line wings up to ∼15 km s−1. An independent decrease in X(CH3OH) with respect to CO of up to one order of magnitude is also found in these objects. We conclude that gas-phase formation of H2O must be active at high velocities (above 10 km s−1 relative to the source velocity) to re-form the water destroyed during sputtering. In addition, the transition from sputtered water at low velocities to form water at high velocities must be gradual. We place an upper limit of two orders of magnitude on the destruction of methanol by sputtering effects

CH abundance gradient in TMC-1

We observed the 9-cm Lambda-doubling lines of CH along the dense filament of TMC-1. The CH column densities were compared with the total H2 column densities derived using the 2MASS NIR data and previously published SCUBA maps and with OH column densities derived using previous observations with Effelsberg. We also modelled the chemical evolution of TMC-1 adopting physical conditions typical of dark clouds using the UMIST Database for Astrochemistry gas-phase reaction network to aid the interpretation of the observed OH/CH abundance ratios. The CH column density has a clear peak in the vicinity of the cyanopolyyne maximum of TMC-1. The fractional CH abundance relative to H2 increases steadily from the northwestern end of the filament where it lies around 1.0e-8, to the southeast where it reaches a value of 2.0e-8. The OH and CH column densities are well correlated, and we obtained OH/CH abundance ratios of ~ 16 - 20. These values are clearly larger than what has been measured recently in diffuse interstellar gas and is likely to be related to C to CO conversion at higher densities. The good correlation between CH and OH can be explained by similar production and destruction pathways. We suggest that the observed CH and OH abundance gradients are mainly due to enhanced abundances in a low-density envelope which becomes more prominent in the southeastern part and seems to continue beyond the dense filament. An extensive envelope probably signifies an early stage of dynamical evolution, and conforms with the detection of a large CH abundance in the southeastern part of the cloud. The implied presence of other simple forms of carbon in the gas phase provides a natural explanation for the observation of "early-type" molecules in this region.Comment: 12 pages, 16 figure

Association of IceCube neutrinos with radio sources observed at Owens Valley and Metsahovi Radio Observatories

Context. Identifying the most likely sources for high-energy neutrino emission has been one of the main topics in high-energy astrophysics ever since the first observation of high-energy neutrinos by the IceCube Neutrino Observatory. Active galactic nuclei with relativistic jets, also known as blazars, have been considered to be one of the main candidates because of their ability to accelerate particles to high energies.Aims. We study the connection between radio emission and IceCube neutrino events using data from the Owens Valley Radio Observatory (OVRO) and Metsahovi Radio Observatory blazar monitoring programs.Methods. We identify sources in our radio monitoring sample that are positionally consistent with IceCube high-energy neutrino events. We estimate their mean flux density and variability amplitudes around the neutrino arrival time, and compare these with values from random samples to establish the significance of our results.Results. We find radio source associations within our samples with 15 high-energy neutrino events detected by IceCube. Nearly half of the associated sources are not detected in the gamma-ray energies, but their radio variability properties and Doppler boosting factors are similar to the gamma-ray detected objects in our sample, meaning that they could still be potential neutrino emitters. We find that the number of strongly flaring objects in our statistically complete OVRO samples is unlikely to be a random coincidence (at 2 sigma level).Conclusions. Based on our results, we conclude that although it is clear that not all neutrino events are associated with strong radio flaring blazars, observations of large-amplitude radio flares in a blazar at the same time as a neutrino event are unlikely to be a random coincidence

Determination of the far-infrared dust opacity in a prestellar core

Context. Mass estimates of interstellar clouds from far-infrared and submillimetre mappings depend on the assumed dust absorption cross-section for radiation at those wavelengths. Aims: The aim is to determine the far-IR dust absorption cross-section in a starless, dense core located in Corona Australis. The value is needed for determining of the core mass and other physical properties. It can also have a bearing on the evolutionary stage of the core. Methods: We correlated near-infrared stellar H - Ks colour excesses of background stars from NTT/SOFI with the far-IR optical depth map, τFIR, derived from Herschel 160, 250, 350, and 500 μm data. The Herschel maps were also used to construct a model for the cloud to examine the effect of temperature gradients on the estimated optical depths and dust absorption cross-sections. Results: A linear correlation is seen between the colour H - Ks and τFIR up to high extinctions (AV ~ 25). The correlation translates to the average extinction ratio A250 μm/AJ = 0.0014 ± 0.0002, assuming a standard near-infrared extinction law and a dust emissivity index β = 2. Using an empirical NH/AJ ratio we obtain an average absorption cross-section per H nucleus of σH250 μm = (1.8 ± 0.3) × 10-25 cm H-atom, corresponding to a cross-section per unit mass of gas κ250 μmg = 0.08 ± 0.01 cm g. The cloud model, however, suggests that owing to the bias caused by temperature changes along the line-of-sight, these values underestimate the true cross-sections by up to 40% near the centre of the core. Assuming that the model describes the effect of the temperature variation on τFIR correctly, we find that the relationship between H - Ks and τFIR agrees with the recently determined relationship between σH and NH in Orion A. Conclusions: The derived far-IR cross-section agrees with previous determinations in molecular clouds with moderate column densities, and is not particularly large compared with some other cold cores. We suggest that this is connected to the core not being very dense (the central density is likely to be ~105 cm), and judging from previous molecular line data, it appears to be at an early stage of chemical evolution

Reconstructing the density and temperature structure of prestellar cores from <i>Herschel</i> data: a case study for B68 and L1689B

Utilizing multiwavelength dust emission maps acquired with Herschel, we reconstruct local volume density and dust temperature profiles for the prestellar cores B68 and L1689B using an inverse-Abel transform-based technique. We present intrinsic radial dust temperature profiles of starless cores directly from dust continuum emission maps disentangling the effect of temperature variations along the line of sight, which were previously limited to the radiative transfer calculations. The reconstructed dust temperature profiles show a significant drop in the core center, a flat inner part, and a rising outward trend until the background cloud temperature is reached. The central beam-averaged dust temperatures obtained for B68 and L1689B are 9.3 ± 0.5 K and 9.8 ± 0.5 K, respectively, which are lower than the temperatures of 11.3 K and 11.6 K obtained from direct SED fitting. The best mass estimates derived by integrating the volume density profiles of B68 and L1689B are 1.6 M⊙ and 11 M⊙, respectively. Comparing our results for B68 with the near-infrared extinction studies, we find that the dust opacity law adopted by the HGBS project, κλ = 0.1 × (λ/300 μm)-2 cm2 g-1 agrees to within 50% with the dust extinction constraints

Structure and stability in TMC-1: Analysis of NH3molecular line andHerschelcontinuum data

Aims. We examined the velocity, density, and temperature structure of Taurus molecular cloud-1 (TMC-1), a filamentary cloud in a nearby quiescent star forming area, to understand its morphology and evolution. Methods. We observed high signal-to-noise (S/N), high velocity resolution NH3(1,1), and (2, 2) emission on an extended map. By fitting multiple hyperfine-split line profiles to the NH3(1, 1) spectra, we derived the velocity distribution of the line components and calculated gas parameters on several positions. Herschel SPIRE far-infrared continuum observations were reduced and used to calculate the physical parameters of the Planck Galactic Cold Clumps (PGCCs) in the region, including the two in TMC-1. The morphology of TMC-1 was investigated with several types of clustering methods in the parameter space consisting of position, velocity, and column density. Results. Our Herschel-based column density map shows a main ridge with two local maxima and a separated peak to the south-west. The H2 column densities and dust colour temperatures are in the range of 0.5−3.3 × 1022 cm−2 and 10.5−12 K, respectively. The NH3 column densities and H2 volume densities are in the range of 2.8−14.2 × 1014 cm−2 and 0.4−2.8 × 104 cm−3. Kinetic temperatures are typically very low with a minimum of 9 K at the maximum NH3 and H2 column density region. The kinetic temperature maximum was found at the protostar IRAS 04381+2540 with a value of 13.7 K. The kinetic temperatures vary similarly to the colour temperatures in spite of the fact that densities are lower than the critical density for coupling between the gas and dust phase. The k-means clustering method separated four sub-filaments in TMC-1 with masses of 32.5, 19.6, 28.9, and 45.9 Mo and low turbulent velocity dispersion in the range of 0.13−0.2 km s−1. Conclusions. The main ridge of TMC-1 is composed of four sub-filaments that are close to gravitational equilibrium. We label these TMC-1F1 through F4. The sub-filaments TMC-1F1, TMC-1F2, and TMC-1F4 are very elongated, dense, and cold. TMC-1F3 is a little less elongated and somewhat warmer, and probably heated by the Class I protostar, IRAS 04381+2540, which is embedded in it. TMC-1F3 is approximately 0.1 pc behind TMC1-F1. Because of its structure, TMC-1 is a good target to test filament evolution scenarios

The Astropy Project: Building an inclusive, open-science project and status of the v2.0 core package

The Astropy project supports and fosters the development of open-source and openly-developed Python packages that provide commonly-needed functionality to the astronomical community. A key element of the Astropy project is the core package Astropy, which serves as the foundation for more specialized projects and packages. In this article, we provide an overview of the organization of the Astropy project and summarize key features in the core package as of the recent major release, version 2.0. We then describe the project infrastructure designed to facilitate and support development for a broader ecosystem of inter-operable packages. We conclude with a future outlook of planned new features and directions for the broader Astropy project