Identifying ancient water availability through phytolith analysis: An experimental approach.

Water management was critical to the development of complex societies but such systems are often difficult, if not impossible, to recognise in the archaeological record, particularly in prehistoric communities when water management began. This is because early irrigation systems are likely to have been ephemeral and as such would no longer be visible in the archaeological record. We conducted a three year crop growing experiment in Jordan to test the hypothesis that phytoliths (opaline silica bodies formed in plants) can be used to detect the level of past water availability and hence be used as a source of information for inferring past water management. Over a three year period we grew native land races of six-row barley (Hordeum vulgare) and durum wheat (Triticum durum) at three crop growing stations in Jordan with the crops being subjected to different irrigation regimes. Seeds were sown in the autumn and the crops harvested in the spring. The plants were then exported to the University of Reading for phytolith processing. Our results show that while there were unknown factors that influenced phytolith production between years, at the higher levels, the ratio of ‘fixed’ form phytoliths (those formed as a result of genetically determined Silicon uptake) to ‘sensitive’ form phytoliths (those whose Silicon uptake is environmentally controlled) can be used to assess past water availability. Our study is the first large scale experimental project to test this method and take into account multiple variables that can affect phytolith production such as soil composition and chemistry, location, climate and evapotranspiration rates. Results from the cereals grown at two of the crop growing stations, Deir ‘Alla and Ramtha, which received between 100 millimetres and 250 millimetres rainfall per annum, demonstrate that if the ratio of fixed to sensitive phytolith forms is >1, the level of past water availability can be predicted with 80% confidence. Results from the crops grown at the other growing station, Kherbet as-Samra, which received less than 100 millimetres of rainfall per year show that if the ratio of fixed to sensitive forms is >0.5, the level of past water availability can be predicted with 99% confidence. This demonstrates that phytolith analysis can be used as a method to identify past water availability

Instrumentation for fluorescence lifetime measurement using photon counting

We describe the evolution of HORIBA Jobin Yvon IBH Ltd, and its time-correlated single-photon counting (TCSPC) products, from university research beginnings through to its present place as a market leader in fluorescence lifetime spectroscopy. The company philosophy is to ensure leading-edge research capabilities continue to be incorporated into instruments in order to meet the needs of the diverse range of customer applications, which span a multitude of scientific and engineering disciplines. We illustrate some of the range of activities of a scientific instrument company in meeting this goal and highlight by way of an exemplar the performance of the versatile DeltaFlex instrument in measuring fluorescence lifetimes. This includes resolving fluorescence lifetimes down to 5 ps, as frequently observed in energy transfer, nanoparticle metrology with sub-nanometre resolution and measuring a fluorescence lifetime in as little as 60 μs for the study of transient species and kinetics

Genome-Wide Transcriptome Analyses of Silicon Metabolism in Phaeodactylum tricornutum Reveal the Multilevel Regulation of Silicic Acid Transporters

BACKGROUND:Diatoms are largely responsible for production of biogenic silica in the global ocean. However, in surface seawater, Si(OH)(4) can be a major limiting factor for diatom productivity. Analyzing at the global scale the genes networks involved in Si transport and metabolism is critical in order to elucidate Si biomineralization, and to understand diatoms contribution to biogeochemical cycles. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS:Using whole genome expression analyses we evaluated the transcriptional response to Si availability for the model species Phaeodactylum tricornutum. Among the differentially regulated genes we found genes involved in glutamine-nitrogen pathways, encoding putative extracellular matrix components, or involved in iron regulation. Some of these compounds may be good candidates for intracellular intermediates involved in silicic acid storage and/or intracellular transport, which are very important processes that remain mysterious in diatoms. Expression analyses and localization studies gave the first picture of the spatial distribution of a silicic acid transporter in a diatom model species, and support the existence of transcriptional and post-transcriptional regulations. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE:Our global analyses revealed that about one fourth of the differentially expressed genes are organized in clusters, underlying a possible evolution of P. tricornutum genome, and perhaps other pennate diatoms, toward a better optimization of its response to variable environmental stimuli. High fitness and adaptation of diatoms to various Si levels in marine environments might arise in part by global regulations from gene (expression level) to genomic (organization in clusters, dosage compensation by gene duplication), and by post-transcriptional regulation and spatial distribution of SIT proteins

Influence of limestone on the hydration of ternary slag cement

The hydration kinetics, microstructure and pore solution composition of ternary slag-limestone cements have been investigated. Commercial CEM I 52.5 R was blended with slag and limestone; maintaining a clinker to SCM ratio of 50:50 with up to 20% slag replaced by limestone. The sulphate content was maintained at 3% in all composite systems. Hydration was followed by a combination of isothermal calorimetry, chemical shrinkage, scanning electron microscopy, and thermogravimetric analysis. The hydration of slag was followed by the implementation of QXRD/PONKCS method. The accuracy of the calibrated PONKCS phase was assessed on slag and corundum mixes of varying ratios, at different w/s ratios. Thus, the method was used to analyse hydrated cements without dehydrating the specimens. The results show that the presence of limestone enhanced both clinker and slag hydration. The pore volume and pore solution chemistry were further examined to clarify to the synergistic effects. The nucleation effects account for enhanced clinker hydration while the space available for hydrate growth plus lowering of the aluminium concentration in the pore solution led to the improved slag hydration

A review of the stable isotope bio-geochemistry of the global silicon cycle and its associated trace elements

Silicon (Si) is the second most abundant element in the Earth’s crust and is an important nutrient in the ocean. The global Si cycle plays a critical role in regulating primary productivity and carbon cycling on the continents and in the oceans. Development of the analytical tools used to study the sources, sinks, and fluxes of the global Si cycle (e.g., elemental and stable isotope ratio data for Ge, Si, Zn, etc.) have recently led to major advances in our understanding of the mechanisms and processes that constrain the cycling of Si in the modern environment and in the past. Here, we provide background on the geochemical tools that are available for studying the Si cycle and highlight our current understanding of the marine, freshwater and terrestrial systems. We place emphasis on the geochemistry (e.g., Al/Si, Ge/Si, Zn/Si, d13C, d15N, d18O, d30Si) of dissolved and biogenic Si, present case studies, such as the Silicic Acid Leakage Hypothesis, and discuss challenges associated with the development of these environmental proxies for the global Si cycle. We also discuss how each system within the global Si cycle might change over time (i.e., sources, sinks, and processes) and the potential technical and conceptual limitations that need to be considered for future studies

Growth of silicalite films on pre-assembled layers of nanoscale seed crystals on piezoelectric chemical sensors

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