Management by geographical area or management specialised by disorder? A mixed-methods evaluation of the effects of an organisational intervention on secondary mental health care for common mental disorder

In 2010, South London and Maudsley NHS Foundation Trust (SLaM) established a programme replacing the borough directorates responsible for adult mental health services with three Clinical Academic Groups (CAGs), each of which took on a subset of adult services straddling all four boroughs. Care pathways were also introduced. We studied the Mood Anxiety and Personality CAG, which took on assessment and treatment teams and psychotherapy services. Objectives We aimed (1) to understand the CAG programme using realistic evaluation and (2) to assess whether or not it led to changes in activity and health-care quality. Methods Qualitative analysis was based on interviews and project documents. Quantitative analyses were based on electronic patient records and compared care in community mental health teams (CMHTs) and psychotherapy teams before and after CAG implementation. Analyses of activity covered caseload, counts of new episodes, episode length and number of contacts per episode. We also looked at CMHT costs. Analyses of effectiveness covered processes (pharmacological and psychological treatment of depression in CMHTs) and outcomes (effect on the Health of the Nation Outcome Scales total score or the Clinical Outcomes in Routine Evaluation 10-item version total score). Analyses of safety examined the rates of self-harm among current or recent CMHT patients. Patient centredness was represented by waiting time. Results The first core component of SLaM’s CAG programme was the CAG restructuring itself. The second was the promotion of care pathways; interpreted as ‘high level pathways’, these schematised processes of referral, assessment, treatment, reassessment and discharge, but abstracted from the details of treatment. The three mechanisms of the CAG restructuring were increasing oversight, making teams fit the template of team types defined for each CAG (‘CAG compliance’) and changing financial accounts by grouping services in new ways; these mechanisms resulted in further reconfigurations. The use of high-level pathways supported service redesign and performance management. In CMHTs and psychotherapy teams activity tended to decrease, but this was probably not because of the CAG programme. CMHT costs were largely unchanged. There was no evidence that the CAG programme altered effectiveness or safety. Effects on waiting times varied but these were reduced in some cases. Overall, therefore, the CAG programme appeared to have had few effects on quality. We attributed this to the limited effect of the programme on individual treatment. Conclusions SLaM’s CAG programme had clear effects on service reconfiguration at team level, with high-level pathways changing the ways that managers conceptualised their work. However, our quantitative work indicated no clear effects on quality. Thinking about how to use care pathways in ways that complement ‘high-level’ pathways by supporting the delivery of evidence-based treatments is a strategy that could help SLaM and other providers. Future research should look at the genesis of organisational change and how this is altered through implementation; it should also look at the effectiveness of care pathways in mental health services

Integration and Continuity of Primary Care: Polyclinics and Alternatives, a Patient-Centred Analysis of How Organisation Constrains Care Coordination

Background An ageing population, increasingly specialised of clinical services and diverse healthcare provider ownership make the coordination and continuity of complex care increasingly problematic. The way in which the provision of complex healthcare is coordinated produces – or fails to – six forms of continuity of care (cross-sectional, longitudinal, flexible, access, informational, relational). Care coordination is accomplished by a combination of activities by: patients themselves; provider organisations; care networks coordinating the separate provider organisations; and overall health system governance. This research examines how far organisational integration might promote care coordination at the clinical level. Objectives To examine: 1. What differences the organisational integration of primary care makes, compared with network governance, to horizontal and vertical coordination of care. 2. What difference provider ownership (corporate, partnership, public) makes. 3. How much scope either structure allows for managerial discretion and ‘performance’. 4. Differences between networked and hierarchical governance regarding the continuity and integration of primary care. 5. The implications of the above for managerial practice in primary care. Methods Multiple-methods design combining: 1. Assembly of an analytic framework by non-systematic review. 2. Framework analysis of patients’ experiences of the continuities of care. 3. Systematic comparison of organisational case studies made in the same study sites. 4. A cross-country comparison of care coordination mechanisms found in our NHS study sites with those in publicly owned and managed Swedish polyclinics. 5. Analysis and synthesis of data using an ‘inside-out’ analytic strategy. Study sites included professional partnership, corporate and publicly owned and managed primary care providers, and different configurations of organisational integration or separation of community health services, mental health services, social services and acute in-patient care. Results Starting from data about patients' experiences of the coordination or under-coordination of care we identified: 1. Five care coordination mechanisms present in both the integrated organisations and the care networks. 2. Four main obstacles to care coordination within the integrated organisations, of which two were also present in the care networks. 3. Seven main obstacles to care coordination that were specific to the care networks. 4. Nine care coordination mechanisms present in the integrated organisations. Taking everything into consideration, integrated organisations appeared more favourable to producing continuities of care than were care networks. Network structures demonstrated more flexibility in adding services for small care groups temporarily, but the expansion of integrated organisations had advantages when adding new services on a longer term and larger scale. Ownership differences affected the range of services to which patients had direct access; primary care doctors’ managerial responsibilities (relevant to care coordination because of its impact on GP workload); and the scope for doctors to develop special interests. We found little difference between integrated organisations and care networks in terms of managerial discretion and performance. Conclusions On balance, an integrated organisation seems more likely to favour the development of care coordination, and therefore continuities of care, than a system of care networks. At least four different variants of ownership and management of organisationally integrated primary care providers are practicable in NHS-like settings

Only connect: addressing the emotional needs of Scotland's children and young people

A report on the SNAP (Scottish Needs Assessment Programme) Child and Adolescent Mental Health Phase Two survey. It describes a survey of a wide range of professionals working with children and young people in Scotland, and deals with professional perspectives on emotional, behavioural and psychological problems. Conclusions and recommendations are presented

Developing a model of mental health self-care support for children and young people through an integrated evaluation of available types of provision involving systematic review, meta-analysis and case study

Background The mental health of children and young people (CYP) is a major UK public health concern. Recent policy reviews have identified that service provision for CYP with mental health needs is not as effective, responsive, accessible or child-centred as it could be. Following on from a previous National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) study into self-care support for CYP with long-term physical health needs, this study explored self-care support’s potential in CYP’s mental health. Objectives To identify and evaluate the types of mental health self-care support used by, and available to, CYP and their parents, and to establish how such support interfaces with statutory and non-statutory service provision. Design Two inter-related systematic literature reviews (an effectiveness review with meta-analysis and a perceptions review), together with a service mapping exercise and case study. Setting Global (systematic reviews); England and Wales (mapping exercise and case study). Participants (case study) Fifty-two individuals (17 CYP, 16 family members and 19 staff) were interviewed across six sites. Main outcome measures (meta-analysis) A measure of CYP’s mental health symptomatology. Data sources (literature reviews) MEDLINE, Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature (CINAHL), PsycINFO, All Evidence-Based Medicine (EBM) Reviews, Applied Social Sciences Index and Abstracts (ASSIA) and Education Resources Information Center (ERIC). Review methods Titles and abstracts of papers were screened for relevance then grouped into studies. Two independent reviewers extracted data from studies meeting the inclusion criteria. A descriptive analysis and meta-analysis were conducted for the effectiveness review; descriptive analyses were conducted for the perceptions review. These analyses were integrated to elicit a mixed-methods review. Results Sixty-five of 71 included studies were meta-analysable. These 65 studies elicited 71 comparisons which, when meta-analysed, suggested that self-care support interventions were effective at 6-month [standardised mean difference (SMD) = −0.20; 95% confidence interval (CI) −0.28 to −0.11] and 12-month (SMD = −0.12; 95% CI −0.17 to −0.06) follow-ups. However, judged against Cochrane criteria, the studies were mostly low quality. Key elements of self-care support identified in the perceptions review were the acquisition of knowledge and skills, peer support and the relationship with the self-care support agent; CYP also had different perceptions from adults about what is important in self-care support. The mapping exercise identified 27 providers of 33 self-care support services. According to the case study data, effective self-care support services are predicated on flexibility; straightforward access; non-judgemental, welcoming organisations and staff; the provision of time and attention; opportunities to learn and practise skills relevant to self-care; and systems of peer support. Conclusions Mental health self-care support interventions for CYP are modestly effective in the short to medium term. Self-care support can be conceptualised as a process which has overlap with ‘recovery’. CYP and their families want choice and flexibility in the provision of such interventions and a continued relationship with services after the nominal therapy period. Those delivering self-care support need to have specific child-centred attributes. Future work Future work should focus on under-represented conditions (e.g. psychosis, eating disorders, self-harm); the role of technology, leadership and readiness in self-care support; satisfaction in self-care support; the conceptualisation of self-care support in CYP’s mental health; and efficacy and cost-effectiveness

Integration and continuity of primary care: polyclinics and alternatives - a patient-centred analysis of how organisation constrains care co-ordination

Background An ageing population, the increasing specialisation of clinical services and diverse health-care provider ownership make the co-ordination and continuity of complex care increasingly problematic. The way in which the provision of complex health care is co-ordinated produces – or fails to produce – six forms of continuity of care (cross-sectional, longitudinal, flexible, access, informational and relational). Care co-ordination is accomplished by a combination of activities by patients themselves; provider organisations; care networks co-ordinating the separate provider organisations; and overall health-system governance. This research examines how far organisational integration might promote care co-ordination at the clinical level. Objectives To examine (1) what differences the organisational integration of primary care makes, compared with network governance, to horizontal and vertical co-ordination of care; (2) what difference provider ownership (corporate, partnership, public) makes; (3) how much scope either structure allows for managerial discretion and ‘performance’; (4) differences between networked and hierarchical governance regarding the continuity and integration of primary care; and (5) the implications of the above for managerial practice in primary care. Methods Multiple-methods design combining (1) the assembly of an analytic framework by non-systematic review; (2) a framework analysis of patients’ experiences of the continuities of care; (3) a systematic comparison of organisational case studies made in the same study sites; (4) a cross-country comparison of care co-ordination mechanisms found in our NHS study sites with those in publicly owned and managed Swedish polyclinics; and (5) the analysis and synthesis of data using an ‘inside-out’ analytic strategy. Study sites included professional partnership, corporate and publicly owned and managed primary care providers, and different configurations of organisational integration or separation of community health services, mental health services, social services and acute inpatient care. Results Starting from data about patients’ experiences of the co-ordination or under-co-ordination of care, we identified five care co-ordination mechanisms present in both the integrated organisations and the care networks; four main obstacles to care co-ordination within the integrated organisations, of which two were also present in the care networks; seven main obstacles to care co-ordination that were specific to the care networks; and nine care co-ordination mechanisms present in the integrated organisations. Taking everything into consideration, integrated organisations appeared more favourable to producing continuities of care than did care networks. Network structures demonstrated more flexibility in adding services for small care groups temporarily, but the expansion of integrated organisations had advantages when adding new services on a longer term and a larger scale. Ownership differences affected the range of services to which patients had direct access; primary care doctors’ managerial responsibilities (relevant to care co-ordination because of their impact on general practitioner workload); and the scope for doctors to develop special interests. We found little difference between integrated organisations and care networks in terms of managerial discretion and performance. Conclusions On balance, an integrated organisation seems more likely to favour the development of care co-ordination and, therefore, continuities of care than a system of care networks. At least four different variants of ownership and management of organisationally integrated primary care providers are practicable in NHS-like settings. Future research is therefore required, above all to evaluate comparatively the different techniques for coordinating patient discharge across the triple interface between hospitals, general practices and community health services; and to discover what effects increasing the scale and scope of general practice activities will have on continuity of care

In-patient treatment in functional and sectorised care: patient satisfaction and length of stay.

BACKGROUND: Debate exists as to whether functional care, in which different psychiatrists are responsible for in- and out-patient care, leads to better in-patient treatment as compared with sectorised care, in which the same psychiatrist is responsible for care across settings. Aims To compare patient satisfaction with in-patient treatment and length of stay in functional and sectorised care. METHOD: Patients with an ICD-10 diagnosis of psychotic, affective or anxiety/somatoform disorders consecutively admitted to an adult acute psychiatric ward in 23 hospitals across 11 National Health Service trusts in England were recruited. Patient satisfaction with in-patient care and length of stay (LoS) were compared (trial registration ISRCTN40256812). RESULTS: In total, 2709 patients were included, of which 1612 received functional and 1097 sectorised care. Patient satisfaction was significantly higher in sectorised care (β = 0.54, 95% CI 0.35-0.73, P<0.001). This difference remained significant when adjusting for locality and patient characteristics. LoS was 6.9 days shorter for patients in sectorised care (β = -6.89, 95% CI -11.76 to -2.02, P<0.001), but this difference did not remain significant when adjusting for clustering by hospital (β = -4.89, 95% CI -13.34 to 3.56, P = 0.26). CONCLUSIONS: This is the first robust evidence that patient satisfaction with in-patient treatment is higher in sectorised care, whereas findings for LoS are less conclusive. If patient satisfaction is seen as a key criterion, sectorised care seems preferable. Declarations of interest None.European Commission 7th Framework Programme. Grant agreement number 602645

Patterns of use of mental health care in Portugal, before and during an economic crisis

RESUMO: Enquadramento: Eliminar a lacuna de cuidados de saúde mental deve ser uma prioridade de saúde pública em todo o mundo, porque o baixo acesso a cuidados de qualidade é uma negação de direitos humanos fundamentais e traduz-se em sofrimento, incapacidade e custos económicos substanciais. Os períodos de crise económica podem aumentar ainda mais a lacuna de tratamento, particularmente em grupos da população já vulneráveis. Organizada em três fases de investigação, esta tese de doutoramento pretende contribuir para um conhecimento mais sistematizado sobre a utilização dos cuidados de saúde mental em Portugal e para uma melhor compreensão do impacto das crises económicas na utilização dos cuidados de saúde mental. Na 1ª fase, foi feita uma revisão sistemática da evidência sobre a associação entre períodos de crise económica e o uso de cuidados de saúde mental. Na 2ª fase, foram avaliados o uso, os padrões e as barreiras à utilização de cuidados de saúde mental em adultos com doença mental em Portugal e o impacto da Grande Recessão no consumo de psicofármacos. Na 3ª fase foram explorados os fatores individuais e contextuais que influenciam os padrões de internamento de doentes agudos, especificamente a demora média, a readmissão e o internamento compulsivo, antes e durante uma crise económica. Métodos: Na 1ª fase da investigação, foi realizada uma revisão sistemática da literatura seguindo o PRISMA Statement. Na segunda fase, foram usados dados do Estudo Epidemiológico Nacional de Saúde Mental (2008/09), um estudo transversal representativo da população portuguesa (n=3849) parte da World Mental Health Survey Initiative, e dados do Follow-up do Estudo Epidemiológico Nacional de Saúde Mental (2015/16) (n=911). Foram efetuados quatro modelos de regressão logística múltipla para avaliar a associação entre variáveis sociodemográficas e clínicas e ter recebido tratamento (sim/não) ou barreiras ao tratamento (baixa necessidade percebida, barreiras atitudinais, barreiras estruturais) nos participantes com doença mental em 2008/09, ajustando por idade, género e presença de doença física. Foram efetuados modelos de equações de estimativas generalizadas múltiplas para estimar a probabilidade na população de consumo de psicofármacos em 2008/2009 (T0) e em 2015/2016 (T1), ajustando por educação. Foram estimados e interpretados odds ratios em níveis específicos dos efeitos principais e dos termos de interação considerando as diferenças de consumo de psicofármacos em T0 e T1, de acordo com o género e a idade. A 3ª fase de investigação usou dados do projeto SMAILE, que estudou utentes das áreas de influência de cinco serviços de Psiquiatria públicos com pelo menos um internamento em 2002, 2007 e 2012. Foram efetuados modelos de regressão logística múltipla para estimar a associação entre demora média mais longa (≥ 17 dias) e readmissão (> 1 admissão) e os fatores sociodemográficos, clínicos e contextuais em estudo. Além disso, foi utilizado um modelo linear generalizado de Poisson para modelar o número esperado de internamentos compulsivos em função das seguintes covariáveis: género, grupo etário, estado civil, educação, situação profissional, presença de tentativa de suicídio, diagnóstico psiquiátrico, ano de avaliação e serviço de Psiquiatria. Resultados: Na 1ª fase foi encontrado que 1) os períodos de crise económica estão associados a aumento da procura de cuidados gerais para problemas de saúde mental, com evidência contraditória quanto à utilização de cuidados especializados psiquiátricos; 2) esses períodos estão associados a maior consumo de psicofármacos e a aumento de internamentos por doença mental, com resultados contraditórios na utilizaçãos de cuidados de saúde mental por comportamento suicidário. Na 2ª fase foi encontrado que 1) a maioria dos participantes (65,4%) com doença mental não recebeu tratamento; 2) o determinante mais importante da utilização de serviços de saúde foi a presença de perturbação do humor, seguido da incapacidade, sendo os participantes solteiros e os que têm ensino básico e secundário os que menos acederam aos serviços de saúde; 3) as barreiras atitudinais foram as mais frequentemente reportadas, seguidas da baixa necessidade percebida e das barreiras estruturais; 4) a probabilidade de reportar barreiras atitudinais foi maior nos participantes com níveis mais baixos de educação e menor nos participantes com perturbação por utilização de substâncias; 5) a baixa necessidade percebida foi mais reportada por solteiros e menos reportada por participantes com perturbação da ansiedade e do humor; 6) a probabilidade de reportar barreiras estruturais foi maior nos participantes desempregados; 7) ajustando para idade, género e educação, foi estimado que a probabilidade na população de consumir qualquer psicofármaco em 2015/16 foi 1,5 vezes maior do que em 2008/09 (OR = 1,50; IC 95%: 1,13–2,01), particularmente para hipnóticos / sedativos (OR = 1,60; IC 95%: 1,14–2,25); 8) as mulheres e os idosos apresentaram maior probabilidade de consumir qualquer psicofármaco, mas a crise económica teve um impacto desproporcional nos homens e nos jovens. Na 3ª fase da investigação, os principais resultados foram: 1) a demora média mais longa foi associada a idade superior, diagnóstico de psicose e internamento compulsivo; 2) a demora média mais curta foi associada a ser casado, ter ensino secundário, ter feito uma tentativa de suicídio, ter o diagnóstico de perturbação de utilização de substâncias e “outras doenças mentais”, ter sido internado em 2012 e pertencer à área de influência de dois dos serviços de Psiquiatria avaliados (Hospital de Magalhães Lemos EPE e Centro Hospitalar Psiquiátrico de Lisboa); 3) a maior probabilidade de readmissão foi associada a ser reformado, ter o diagnóstico de psicose, ter internamento compulsivo e pertencer à área de influência de quatro dos serviços de Psiquiatria avaliados (Hospital de Magalhães Lemos EPE, Centro Hospitalar Psiquiátrico de Lisboa, Hospital Professor Doutor Fernando Fonseca EPE e Unidade Local de Saúde do Baixo Alentejo EPE); 4) a menor probabilidade de readmissão foi associada a ter idade superior e ter ensino secundário ou superior; 5) o aumento de internamento compulsivo foi associado a sexo masculino, ensino secundário ou superior, diagnóstico psiquiátrico de psicose e internamento em 2007 e em 2012; 6) a diminuição de internamento compulsivo foi associada a ser casado ou coabitar, ter feito uma tentativa de suicídio e pertencer à área de influência de três dos serviços de Psiquiatria avaliados (Hospital de Magalhães Lemos EPE, Centro Hospitalar Psiquiátrico de Lisboa e Unidade Local de Saúde do Baixo Alentejo EPE). Conclusões: Os resultados desta tese de doutoramento confirmam as elevadas necessidades não satisfeitas de saúde mental em Portugal, sugerem quais são as principais barreiras aos cuidados e identificam os subgrupos mais vulneráveis a essas barreiras e a padrões de hospitalização mais graves. Esta evidência pode ajudar a estabelecer prioridades de ação quando estamos a viver uma grave crise económica e há uma necessidade urgente de reduzir a lacuna nos cuidados de saúde mental. O atual momento de interesse pela saúde mental deve ser uma oportunidade para investir e melhorar a utilização dos recursos e a organização dos serviços. As estratégias para melhorar a capacidade do setor da saúde mental para responder às necessidades de saúde mental incluem modelos de cuidados mais próximos da população, que facilitam a identificação precoce de problemas de saúde mental e a implementação de intervenções integradas e psicossociais. Este objetivo poderá ser alcançado com o desenvolvimento de uma rede mais robusta e ampla de equipas e de serviços de saúde mental baseados na comunidade, a solução mais efetiva para melhorar a continuidade de cuidados, reforçar a adesão ao tratamento, melhorar o apoio e a colaboração com as famílias e aprofundar a coordenação com os cuidados de saúde primários e os serviços sociais. É também essencial melhorar a procura de ajuda, implementando intervenções de literacia em saúde mental, usando tecnologias digitais e incentivando o contacto interpessoal com pessoas com doença mental. Por último, mas não menos importante, as pessoas com doença mental devem ser envolvidas em todos os aspetos dos cuidados de saúde mental, com pleno reconhecimento de seus desejos e das suas preferências e respeito pelos seus direitos humanos.ABSTRACT: I would like to thank my supervisor, Professor Benedetto Saraceno, for his warm support and critical feedback during the work for this thesis. I am truly grateful for his constant positive reinforcements and for the friendship throughout the years. I also would like to thank Professor Joaquim Gago for co-supervising this thesis. I am especially thankful for his kind support, availability and generosity, fundamental for the completion of this work. I am grateful to my team of the Lisbon Institute of Global Mental Health: it is a privilege to be part of this wonderful group, and this thesis was possible only with your continuous support. To Professor José Miguel Caldas de Almeida, I thank the encouraging advices, friendship and generosity for the implementation of this research project. To Professor Graça Cardoso, I thank the valuable comments, the brainstorm and companionship throughout the execution of the project, and the friendship. I am deeply grateful to Ana Antunes for having been so important for the completion of this work, with our long conversations about everything, her attention to detail, the help with the manuscripts, and her friendship. I also thank Sofia Azeredo-Lopes for her rigour and invaluable help with statistics, essential to accomplish this work, and for the friendship. I thank Ana Oliveira for her always good teamwork. I want to express my gratitude to my colleagues over the years: Diana Frasquilho, Joana Zózimo, Ana Meireles, Marta Agostinho, Daniel Neto, Cheila Almeida, Gina Tomé, and Isa Figueira. I would like to thank Professor Miguel Xavier for all his support. My thanks also go to the SMAILE project team for the excellent learning experience. I am thankful for the fruitful collaboration with Professor Paula Santana, PI of the project. To Adriana Loureiro, thank you for the support, the availability and the beautiful maps. I extend my acknowledgments to all the members of the team: Professor Carla Nunes, Professor João Ferrão, Professor Pedro Pita Barros, Professor Maria do Rosário Partidário, Joana Lima, and all the other members of Centro de Estudos de Geografia e Ordenamento do Território da Universidade de Coimbra I thank the support of the coordinators of the SMAILE project in each participating hospital: Dr. Ana Matos Pires, Dr. António Leuschner, Dr. José Salgado, Dr. Luís Sardinha, and Professor Teresa Maia. I also thank the Psychiatry residents that contributed to the data collection: Drs. Sofia Gomes, Catarina Cochat, José Luís Fernandes, Maria Lima Peixoto, Marlene Alves, Marta Queirós, and Vítor Pimenta (Hospital de Magalhães Lemos EPE); Drs. Rafael Costa, Beatriz Lourenço, Catarina Agostinho, Ciro Oliveira, Filipe Gonçalves, Filipe Vicente, Gonçalo Sobreira, Guilherme Pereira, Gustavo Jesus, Inês Coelho, João Oliveira, Marco Duarte, Margarida Bairrão, Miguel Nascimento, Sérgio Saraiva, Sofia Charro, Tiago Sousa, and Vânia Viveiros (Centro Hospitalar Psiquiátrico de Lisboa); Drs. Ana Sofia Sequeira, Daniel Neto, Hugo da Silva, Ricardo Duque, and Sérgio Pereira (Centro Hospitalar de Lisboa Ocidental EPE); Drs. Ana Filipa Correia, Guilherme Martins, Salomé Magalhães, Márcia Sequeira, Marta Nascimento, Sara Castro, Sofia Barbosa, and Sílvia Batista (Hospital Professor Doutor Fernando Fonseca EPE); and Dr. Catarina Gaspar (Unidade Local de Saúde do Baixo Alentejo EPE). Your collaboration was essential to complete this work. To my global friends Davínia, Patricia, Maria Luisa, Pilar and Anna: it was great to share experiences and to learn from you. I thank Professor Marco Paulino for his role and example in my training as a psychiatrist and for the availability to monitor this thesis. I thank my team at Serviço de Psiquiatria e Saúde Mental of Centro Hospitalar Universitário Lisboa Norte EPE (Joana Pinheiro, Patrícia Plácido, Paula Alves and Tânia Carneiro) for the friendship. To Professor Daniel Sampaio, who inspired me to become a psychiatrist. To Dr. António Neves, Dr. Nazaré Santos, Professor Carlos Góis and Dr. Dulce Bouça, I thank all the good years and experiences that we’ve shared. To Professor António Barbosa, for his trust and encouragement. To Professor Luís Câmara Pestana, for his support. I thank Tiago, for his support over the years and help proofreading this thesis. All my gratitude to my parents and to Ana, for the constant trust, inspiration and availability. And to João, for all his support, understanding, and endless encouragement Background: Closing the mental health care gap should be at the top of the public health agenda worldwide, because low access to quality care is a denial of fundamental human rights and leads to substantial suffering, disability, and economic costs. Periods of economic crisis might further increase the treatment gap, particularly in already vulnerable population groups. Organised in three research phases, this doctoral thesis aims to contribute to a more systematised knowledge about the use of mental health care in Portugal, and to a better understanding of the impact of economic crises on the use of mental health care. A systematic review of the current evidence on the association between periods of economic crisis and the use of mental health care was conducted in the 1st phase. In the 2nd phase the use, patterns and barriers to mental health care among adults with mental disorders in Portugal, and the impact of the Great Recession on the use of psychotropic drugs were evaluated. The individual and contextual factors that influence patterns of use of acute psychiatric inpatient services, specifically length of hospital stay (LOS), readmission and involuntary hospitalisation, before and during an economic crisis, were explored in the 3rd phase. Methods: In the 1st research phase, a systematic literature review was carried out following the PRISMA guidelines. In the 2nd phase research was conducted using data from the National Mental Health Survey (2008/09), a nationally representative cross-sectional survey (n=3849) part of the World Mental Health Survey Initiative, and from the National Mental Health Survey Follow-up (2015/16) (n=911). Four multiple logistic regression models were performed to evaluate the association between sociodemographic and clinical variables and having received treatment (yes/no) or barriers to treatment (low perceived need, attitudinal barriers, structural barriers) among the participants with any 12-month mental disorder in 2008/09, adjusting for age, gender and presence of any physical disorder. Multiple generalised estimating equations models were performed to estimate the population odds of consuming psychotropic drugs in 2008/2009 (T0) and in 2015/2016 (T1), adjusting for education. Odds ratios were estimated and interpreted at specific levels of the main effects and of interaction terms considering differences in psychotropic drugs use in T0 and T1, according to gender and age. The 3rd research phase used data from the SMAILE project which studied patients from the catchment areas of five public psychiatric services who had at least one admission during 2002, 2007 and 2012. Multiple logistic regression models were used to estimate the association between longer LOS (≥17 days) and readmission (>1 admission) with the sociodemographic, clinical, and contextual factors under study. Additionally, a Poisson generalised linear model was employed for modelling the expected number of involuntary hospitalisations as a function of the following covariates: gender, age group, marital status, education, employment status, suicide attempt, psychiatric diagnosis, year of evaluation and psychiatric service. Results: In the 1st phase the main findings were that 1) periods of economic crisis are linked to an increase in seeking general help for mental health problems, with conflicting results regarding the changes in the use of specialised psychiatric care; 2) these periods are associated with a higher use of psychotropic drugs and an increase in hospital admissions for mental disorders, with mixed evidence on the use of mental health care specifically due to suicide behaviour. In the 2nd phase the main findings were that 1) the majority of participants (65.4%) with a mental disorder did not receive treatment; 2) the most important determinant of the use of health services was the presence of a mood disorder, followed by disability, while single participants and those with basic or secondary education were the ones who least accessed mental health care; 3) attitudinal barriers were the most commonly reported barrier to treatment, followed by low perceived need and structural barriers; 4) attitudinal barriers were more likely among participants with lower levels of education, and less likely among participants with substance use disorders; 5) low perceived need was higher among single people, and lower among those with anxiety and mood disorders; 6) structural barriers were more likely among unemployed participants; 7) after adjusting for age, gender and education, population odds of consuming any psychotropic drugs in 2015/16 were estimated to be 1.5 times higher than in 2008/09 (OR = 1.50; 95% CI: 1.13–2.01), particularly for hypnotics/sedatives (OR = 1.60; 95% CI: 1.14–2.25); 8) women and older individuals presented higher odds of consuming any psychotropic drugs, but the economic crisis had a disproportionate impact on men and younger individuals. In the 3rd research phase the main findings were that: 1) longer LOS was associated with older age, a diagnosis of psychosis, and compulsory admission; 2) shorter LOS was associated with being married, having a secondary education, having experienced a suicide attempt, having been diagnosed with a substance use disorder and “other mental disorders”, being admitted in 2012, and belonging to the catchment area of two of the psychiatric services evaluated (Hospital de Magalhães Lemos EPE and Centro Hospitalar Psiquiátrico de Lisboa); 3) higher odds of readmission were associated with being retired, a diagnosis of psychosis, compulsory admission, and belonging to the catchment area of four of the psychiatric services evaluated (Hospital de Magalhães Lemos EPE, Centro Hospitalar Psiquiátrico de Lisboa, Hospital Professor Doutor Fernando Fonseca EPE, and Unidade Local de Saúde do Baixo Alentejo EPE); 4) lower odds of readmission were associated with older age and with having secondary or higher education; 5) an increase of involuntary hospitalisations was associated with male gender, secondary or higher education, a psychiatric diagnosis of psychosis, and admission in 2007 and in 2012; 6) a decrease in involuntary hospitalisations was associated with being married or cohabitating, having experienced a suicide attempt, and belonging to the catchment area of three of the psychiatric services evaluated (Hospital de Magalhães Lemos EPE, Centro Hospitalar Psiquiátrico de Lisboa and Unidade Local de Saúde do Baixo Alentejo EPE). Conclusions: The results of this doctoral thesis confirm the high unmet mental health needs in Portugal, suggest what are the main barriers to care, and identify the subgroups most vulnerable to these barriers and to more severe hospitalisation patterns. This evidence might help to establish priorities for action when we are experiencing a serious economic crisis and there is an urgent need to reduce the mental health care gap. The current momentum of interest in mental health should be an opportunity to invest and improve the use of resources and the organisation of services. Strategies to improve the capacity of the mental health sector to respond to the mental health demands include models of care that are closer to the population, facilitating the early identification of mental health problems and the implementation of integrated and psychosocial interventions. This could be achieved by developing a more robust and widespread network of community-based mental health teams and services, the best solution to enhance continuity of care, to reinforce treatment compliance, to improve support for and collaboration with families, and to improve coordination with primary care and social services. It is also essential to improve help-seeking attitudes by implementing mental health literacy interventions, using digital technologies, and encouraging interpersonal contact with people with mental disorders. Last but not least,people with mental disorders should be engaged in all aspects of mental health care, with the full recognition of their desires and preferences and respect for their human right