Land levelling with scrapers

A VARIETY of earth-moving equipment can be used in preparing land for flood irrigation, but the best machine for extensive earth moving over some distance is a power-driven, carry-all scraper

In defence of behaviourism : a Skinnerian reinterpretation of Stenhouse's ethological theory of intelligence, supported by a Galilean philosophy of science : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Education at Massey University

This thesis attempts to justify a Skinnerian interpretation of intelligence. The justification has three major themes. Firstly it is argued that Skinnerian behaviourism has the status of scientific knowledge comparable to Newtonian mechanics. Secondly it is argued that Stenhouse's ethological theory of intelligence has a number of defects, so that a behaviourist theory which retains the strengths of the ethological theory while avoiding those defects is to be preferred. Thirdly it is argued that certain widely received accounts of scientific knowledge are mistaken; an alternative account is presented. This venture into philosophy of science underlies the other two themes and is presented first. The supposition that science may be represented in terms of general laws of the form 'All swans are white' is critically examined, following Toulmin's analysis which is illustrated with three exemplars of scientific knowledge. A Galilean ideal of science is then elaborated. The ideal is formulated in terms of scientific knowledge following Toulmin, and illustrated with three exemplars of scientific knowledge. The processes of revolutionary science, normal science, technology, and justification of theories, are interpreted in terms of the ideal alluded to above with further illustrations. Convergences with de Bono's 'lateral thinking' are suggested. Criticisms of statistical 'social science' are noted. The conventional contrast between physical and social science is critically examined. A formulation of Skinnerian behaviourism is presented, to demonstrate that behaviourism conforms to the Galilean ideal of science. Various criticisms of behaviourism are responded to. The proposed criteria for justification of theories are applied to behaviourism. Stenhouse's ethological theory of the nature and evolution of intelligence is criticially examined. The divergent development of ethology and behaviourism from reflexology is outlined. Skinner's critique of Pavlov's concept 'inhibition' is applied to Stenhouse's 'P-factor'. The use of metaphors in science is discussed. De Bono's 'special memory surface' is noted as an alternative to the usual mechanical or electronic storage systems as a metaphor for memory. Skinner's analysis of the nature and evolution of intelligence is elaborated. Stenhouse's factors and especially the P-factor are reinterpreted in behaviourist terms. It is argued that a behaviourist theory of intelligence is preferable to Stenhouse's ethological theory in terms of the Galilean ideal of science. Educational and political implications of various philosophical and theoretical positions are also noted

Exploring the perceived flooding impacts on tourist accommodation establishments in the Limpopo province, South Africa

A dissertation submitted to the Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science. School of Geography, Archaeology and Environmental Studies (GAES). Johannesburg, October 2017.Climate and weather-related impacts have become widespread particularly affecting the tourism industry. Changes in the climate and weather lead to changes in tourist seasons, products and travel opportunities. Flooding has gained research attention over the past decade, since the destruction creates many challenges for tourism businesses. Floods are a growing global problem, increasing in terms of frequency of occurrence, property damages, business economic losses, and fatalities. South Africa has begun to experience many annual flood events both coastal and in-land, but the Limpopo Province has been declared as flood disaster area, since the increase in temperatures and precipitation. Interest now lies on how particular tourist destinations in the Limpopo Province can adapt to reduce flooding risks whilst increasing opportunities mainly for the economy. Debates around flooding costs, recovery processes, and adaptive capacities affirm to be more challenging for the tourism accommodation sector. The study aimed to explore the perceived flooding impacts on different types of tourist accommodation. Thus, to determine if floods hindered any tourist bookings, offerings, and tourist length of stay. The exploration verified the possible flood risks to vulnerable accommodation and no adequate adaptation plans. A purposeful sample of 145 tourist accommodation businesses located across three flood-prone regions of the Limpopo Province were selected to answer a semi-structured questionnaire to put across their flooding experiences from a management perspective. The semi-structured questionnaire was combined with telephone interviews and email responses. Coherent theme development within the theoretical framework was achieved through content analysis. Content analysis allowed for the critical discussion of deductive and inductive themes found in the results. Floods during peak-seasons threaten and affect tourist accommodation, leaving them behind in business. Those not affected benefit with increased tourist demand and new opportunities in the hospitality industry. Tourist accommodation businesses are exposed to flood risks and experience challenges to assess, recover and adapt from the direct and indirect impacts. Alongside the destruction of tourism in these regions, were concerns of the provision of flood mapping and flood management plans for tourism businesses. Wider flooding impacts on the environment and the surrounding local communities demonstrates a growing problem for the future. Key words: floods; tourist accommodation; flooding impacts; risks; opportunities; tourist demand; adaptation; flood recovery, flood mapping, flood management plans.LG201

A deep-sea coral record of North Atlantic radiocarbon through the Younger Dryas: Evidence for intermediate water/deepwater reorganization

Our record of Younger Dryas intermediate-depth seawater Δ^(14)C from North Atlantic deep-sea corals supports a link between abrupt climate change and intermediate ocean variability. Our data show that northern source intermediate water (∼1700 m) was partially replaced by (14)^C-depleted southern source water at the onset of the event, consistent with a reduction in the rate of North Atlantic Deep Water formation. This transition requires the existence of large, mobile gradients of Δ^(14)C in the ocean during the Younger Dryas. The Δ^(14)C water column profile from Keigwin (2004) provides direct evidence for the presence of one such gradient at the beginning of the Younger Dryas (∼12.9 ka), with a 100‰ offset between shallow (<∼2400 m) and deep water. Our early Younger Dryas data are consistent with this profile and also show a Δ^(14)C inversion, with 35‰ more enriched water at ∼2400 m than at ∼1700 m. This feature is probably the result of mixing between relatively well ^(14)C ventilated northern source water and more poorly ^(14)C ventilated southern source intermediate water, which is slightly shallower. Over the rest of the Younger Dryas our intermediate water/deepwater coral Δ^(14)C data gradually increase, while the atmosphere Δ^(14)C drops. For a very brief interval at ∼12.0 ka and at the end of the Younger Dryas (11.5 ka), intermediate water Δ^(14)C (∼1200 m) approached atmospheric Δ14C. These enriched Δ^(14)C results suggest an enhanced initial Δ^(14)C content of the water and demonstrate the presence of large lateral Δ^(14)C gradients in the intermediate/deep ocean in addition to the sharp vertical shift at ∼2500 m. The transient Δ^(14)C enrichment at ∼12.0 ka occurred in the middle of the Younger Dryas and demonstrates that there is at least one time when the intermediate/deep ocean underwent dramatic change but with much smaller effects in other paleoclimatic records

Towards a radiocarbon chronology of the Late-Glacial: Sample selection strategies

This paper outlines a dating program designed to test the reproducibility of radiocarbon dates on different materials of Late-Glacial age (plant macrofossils, fossil beetle remains, and the "humic" and "humin" chemical fractions of limnic sediments) using a combination of radiometric (beta counting) and accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) techniques. The results have implications for the design of sampling strategies and for the development of improved dating protocols, both of which are important if a high-precision C-14 chronology for the Late- Glacial is to be achieved