Reading and the Response Towards Unknown Single Words and Formulaic Sequences by English Second Language Learners

Abstract With advancements in technology, reading task can take place on a computer, where a gloss is only a click away. A gloss can be consulted to find the meaning of any single word (SW) or formulaic sequence (FS). So how does this influence the L2 reader? In an attempt to understand the L2 reader, this study will use a within subject design to look at clicking behaviors, reading comprehension, and characteristics of the individual L2 readers as they complete the task of reading on the computer. This study focuses on 20 targeted lexical items equally distributed between single words (SW) and formulaic sequences (FS). In addition, 50% of these targets take the form of underlined, blue text to consider the properties of typographical saliency. One reading passage, embedded with hyperlinks for single words (SW) and formulaic sequences (FS), was given to 107 participants to read on the computer along with a multiple choice reading comprehension paper test of 20 questions. Statistical analysis surprisingly finds similarities and differences between single words (SW) and formulaic sequences (FS) in both clicking behaviors and reading comprehension scores. These results, demonstrates a need for further evaluation on how L2 readers perform in a reading task, involving single words (SW) and formulaic sequences (FS)

Minimal information for studies of extracellular vesicles 2018 (MISEV2018):a position statement of the International Society for Extracellular Vesicles and update of the MISEV2014 guidelines

The last decade has seen a sharp increase in the number of scientific publications describing physiological and pathological functions of extracellular vesicles (EVs), a collective term covering various subtypes of cell-released, membranous structures, called exosomes, microvesicles, microparticles, ectosomes, oncosomes, apoptotic bodies, and many other names. However, specific issues arise when working with these entities, whose size and amount often make them difficult to obtain as relatively pure preparations, and to characterize properly. The International Society for Extracellular Vesicles (ISEV) proposed Minimal Information for Studies of Extracellular Vesicles (“MISEV”) guidelines for the field in 2014. We now update these “MISEV2014” guidelines based on evolution of the collective knowledge in the last four years. An important point to consider is that ascribing a specific function to EVs in general, or to subtypes of EVs, requires reporting of specific information beyond mere description of function in a crude, potentially contaminated, and heterogeneous preparation. For example, claims that exosomes are endowed with exquisite and specific activities remain difficult to support experimentally, given our still limited knowledge of their specific molecular machineries of biogenesis and release, as compared with other biophysically similar EVs. The MISEV2018 guidelines include tables and outlines of suggested protocols and steps to follow to document specific EV-associated functional activities. Finally, a checklist is provided with summaries of key points

Chlamydia species-dependent differences in the growth requirement for lysosomes

Genome reduction is a hallmark of obligate intracellular pathogens such as Chlamydia, where adaptation to intracellular growth has resulted in the elimination of genes encoding biosynthetic enzymes. Accordingly, chlamydiae rely heavily on the host cell for nutrients yet their specific source is unclear. Interestingly, chlamydiae grow within a pathogen-defined vacuole that is in close apposition to lysosomes. Metabolically-labeled uninfected host cell proteins were provided as an exogenous nutrient source to chlamydiae-infected cells, and uptake and subsequent labeling of chlamydiae suggested lysosomal degradation as a source of amino acids for the pathogen. Indeed, Bafilomycin A1 (BafA1), an inhibitor of the vacuolar H(+)/ATPase that blocks lysosomal acidification and functions, impairs the growth of C. trachomatis and C. pneumoniae, and these effects are especially profound in C. pneumoniae. BafA1 induced the marked accumulation of material within the lysosomal lumen, which was due to the inhibition of proteolytic activities, and this response inhibits chlamydiae rather than changes in lysosomal acidification per se, as cathepsin inhibitors also inhibit the growth of chlamydiae. Finally, the addition of cycloheximide, an inhibitor of eukaryotic protein synthesis, compromises the ability of lysosomal inhibitors to block chlamydial growth, suggesting chlamydiae directly access free amino acids in the host cytosol as a preferred source of these nutrients. Thus, chlamydiae co-opt the functions of lysosomes to acquire essential amino acids

Morbidity and Toxic Effects Associated With Ganciclovir or Foscarnet Therapy in a Randomized Cytomegalovirus Retinitis Trial

BACKGROUND: The Foscarnet-Ganciclovir Cytomegalovirus Retinitis Trial compared the use of either ganciclovir or foscarnet for the initial treatment of cytomegalovirus retinitis in patients with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. We previously reported that patients treated with foscarnet lived longer but were more likely to have their treatment switched, the latter suggesting foscarnet may not have been as well tolerated as ganciclovir. This study compared the morbidity and toxic reactions reported during the trial. METHODS: Two hundred thirty-four patients with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome and previously untreated cytomegalovirus retinitis at 11 university centers were randomly assigned to receive intravenously either foscarnet (n=107) or ganciclovir (n=127). Medical histories, laboratory tests, and drug treatment histories during the first 6 months of treatment were analyzed. RESULTS: Neutropenia was more common in patients assigned to ganciclovir than to foscarnet (34% vs 14%; P=.001). Patients assigned to foscarnet reported more infusion-related symptoms (58% vs 24%; P.001); they also experienced a trend toward more nephrotoxic effects (13% vs 6%; P=.082) and electrolyte abnormalities. The incidence of seizures was similar in both groups (foscarnet, 12%; ganciclovir, 9%; P=.511). Patients assigned to foscarnet were more likely to be switched to the alternative treatment (foscarnet to ganciclovir, 46%; ganciclovir to foscarnet, 11%; P<.001), and most of this excess was attributable to toxic reactions. In 88% of cases in which treatment was switched as a result of toxic reactions and in which follow-up data were available, the toxic reaction resolved after the switch. No permanent disability or death resulted from toxic reactions. CONCLUSIONS: Compared with ganciclovir, the use of foscarnet was more frequently limited by the occurrence of toxic reactions. However, these toxic reactions rarely had long-term sequelae. In light of the previously reported survival benefit seen in patients treated with foscarnet, these data support the use of foscarnet for the initial treatment of cytomegalovirus retinitis.(Arch Intern Med. 1995;155:65-74