A Surface Plasmon Resonance Sensor for the Detection of Deoxynivalenol Using a Molecularly Imprinted Polymer

The aim of the present work was to investigate the feasibility of applying the molecular imprinting polymer technique to the detection of the mycotoxin deoxynivalenol (DON) using a surface plasmon resonance (SPR) transducer. A molecularly imprinted polypyrrole (MIPPy) film was prepared via electropolymerization of pyrrole onto a bare Au chip in the presence of a template DON molecule. Atomic force microscope SPR analysis showed that the MIPPy film was deposited homogeneously on the Au surface, with a thickness of 5 nm. The MIPPy–SPR sensor exhibited a linear response for the detection of DON in the range of 0.1–100 ng/mL (R2 = 0.988). The selectivity efficiency of the MIPPy film for DON and its acetylated analogs 3-ADON and 15-ADON was 100, 19, and 44%, respectively. The limit of detection for DON with the MIPPy–SPR for a standard solution was estimated at >1 ng/mL. These results suggest that the combination of SPR sensing with a MIPPy film as a synthetic receptor can be used to detect DON

Forage as a Primary Source of Mycotoxins in Animal Diets

The issue of moulds and, thus, contamination with mycotoxins is very topical, particularly in connexion with forages from grass stands used at the end of the growing season. Deoxynivalenol (DON), zearalenone (ZEA), fumonisins (FUM) and aflatoxins (AFL) are among the most common mycotoxins. The aim of the paper was to determine concentrations of mycotoxins in selected grasses (Lolium perenne, Festulolium pabulare, Festulolium braunii) and their mixtures with Festuca rubra an/or Poa pratensis during the growing season as a marker of grass safety, which was assessed according to content of the aforementioned mycotoxins. During the growing season grass forage was contaminated with mycotoxins, most of all by DON and ZEA. The contents of AFL and FUM were zero or below the limit of quantification. Moreover, the level of the occurrence of mould was quantified as ergosterol content, which was higher at the specific date of cut. All results were statistically processed and significant changes were discussed

Stability of DON and OTA during the breadmaking process and determination of process and performance criteria

The fate of deoxynivalenol (DON) and ochratoxin A (OTA) during the breadmaking process was studied. In particular, toxin content was analysed in mixed baking ingredients before kneading, after fermentation and proofing, and finally after baking. Fermentation and proofing were carried out at 30 C for 1 h, while baking was performed at different temperature levels (from 170 to 210 C) and baking times from 45 to 135 min, in a full factorial design. DON increased from unkneaded mix to fermented dough, and decreased due to baking; this trend depended on the initial concentration of DON in the flour. The level in the bread was significantly lower than in the initial mix of ingredients. In contrast, deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside (DON-3-G) content increased both during kneading and fermentation, and also during baking. Moreover, the results confirmed the high stability of OTA as no significant change in its content could be observed as a result of the breadmaking process. As conclusion, the design of bakery product processes may help to control DON in final products, because although quite stable, its levels can be reduced to some extent. However, high levels of DON-3-G were released during baking, and this point should be further investigated. Mycotoxins have been always considered as stable compounds; however, in depth knowledge of the processing steps that may lead to some reduction (although limited) and those which can stimulate their release from conjugated forms, will definitely help in their control in finished foodstuffs.The authors are grateful to the Spanish government (projects AGL2010-22182-C04-04 and AGL2011-24862) for the financial support. A. Vidal thanks the Spanish Government (Ministry of Education) for the pre-doctoral grant. H. Morales is grateful to the Portuguese Government. (Ministerio da Ciecia, Tecnologia e Ensino Superior; FCT Fundacao para a Ciencia e a Tecnologia) Grant ref. SFRH/BPD/38011/2007

Effects of Milling and Cooking Processes on the Deoxynivalenol Content in Wheat

Deoxynivalenol (DON, vomitoxin) is a natural-occuring mycotoxin mainly produced by Fusarium graminearum, a food-borne fungi widely distributed in crops and it is one of the most important mycotoxins in wheat and wheat-based foods and feeds. DON affects animal and human health causing diarrhea, vomiting, gastro-intestinal inflammation, and immunomodulation. Since the rate of the occurrence of DON in wheat is high, effective procedures to remove or eliminate DON from food products is essential to minimize exposures in those who consume large amounts of wheat. Cleaning prior to milling reduced to some extent the concentration of DON in final products. Since DON is distributed throughout the kernels, with higher content in the outer skin, milling is also effective in reducing the DON levels of wheat-based foods if bran and shorts are removed before thermal cooking. DON is water-soluble and cooking with larger amounts of water lowers DON content in products such as spaghetti and noodles. During baking or heating, DON is partially degraded to DON-related chemicals, whose toxicological effects are not studied well. This paper reviews the researches on the effects of milling and cooking on the DON level and discusses the perspectives of further studies

Statement on the risks for public health related to a possible increase of the maximum level of deoxynivalenol for certain semi-processed cereal products

The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) was asked to deliver a scientific opinion on the risks for public health related to a possible increase of the maximum level (ML) of deoxynivalenol (DON) for certain semi-processed cereal products from 750 µg/kg to 1000 µg/kg. For this statement, EFSA relied on existing occurrence data on DON in food collected between 2007 and 2012 and reported by 21 European countries. Due to the lack of appropriate occurrence data from pre-market monitoring, the impact of increasing the ML was estimated using a simulation approach, resulting in an expected increase in mean levels of the respective food products by a factor of 1.14-1.16. Based on median chronic exposure in several age classes, the percentage of consumers exceeding the group provisional maximum tolerable daily intake (PMTDI) of 1 μg/kg body weight (b.w.) for the sum of DON and its 3- and 15-acetyl-derivatives, established by the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) in 2010, is approximately 2-fold higher with the suggested increased ML than with the current ML. Several acute exposure scenarios resulted in exceedance of the group acute reference dose (ARfD) of 8 µg/kg b.w. established by JECFA with up to 25.9 % of the consumption days above the group ARfD. The EFSA Scientific Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain notes that the group health based guidance values (HBGVs) include 3-Ac-DON and 15-Ac-DON. The exposure from the acetyl-derivatives has not been covered in this statement, since the acetyl-derivatives are not included in the current or suggested increased ML and because only few occurrence data are available. An increase of the DON ML can be expected to be associated with an increase of the levels of DON and Ac-DONs, and can therefore increase the exposure and consequently the exceedances of the group HBGVs

Risks to human and animal health related to the presence of deoxynivalenol and its acetylated and modified forms in food and feed

Deoxynivalenol (DON) is a mycotoxin primarily produced by Fusarium fungi, occurring predominantly in cereal grains. Following the request of the European Commission, the CONTAM Panel assessed the risk to animal and human health related to DON, 3-acetyl-DON (3-Ac-DON), 15-acetyl-DON (15-Ac-DON) and DON-3-glucoside in food and feed. A total of 27,537, 13,892, 7,270 and 2,266 analytical data for DON, 3-Ac-DON, 15-Ac-DON and DON-3-glucoside, respectively, in food, feed and unprocessed grains collected from 2007 to 2014 were used. For human exposure, grains and grain-based products were main sources, whereas in farm and companion animals, cereal grains, cereal by-products and forage maize contributed most. DON is rapidly absorbed, distributed, and excreted. Since 3-Ac-DON and 15-Ac-DON are largely deacetylated and DON-3-glucoside cleaved in the intestines the same toxic effects as DON can be expected. The TDI of 1 μg/kg bw per day, that was established for DON based on reduced body weight gain in mice, was therefore used as a group-TDI for the sum of DON, 3-Ac-DON, 15-Ac-DON and DON-3-glucoside. In order to assess acute human health risk, epidemiological data from mycotoxicoses were assessed and a group-ARfD of 8 μg/kg bw per eating occasion was calculated. Estimates of acute dietary exposures were below this dose and did not raise a health concern in humans. The estimated mean chronic dietary exposure was above the group-TDI in infants, toddlers and other children, and at high exposure also in adolescents and adults, indicating a potential health concern. Based on estimated mean dietary concentrations in ruminants, poultry, rabbits, dogs and cats, most farmed fish species and horses, adverse effects are not expected. At the high dietary concentrations, there is a potential risk for chronic adverse effects in pigs and fish and for acute adverse effects in cats and farmed mink