Transitory Income Shocks and Essential Household Consumption Expenditures in Rural Kenya

Majority of rural households in developing economies derive their livelihoods from agriculture, a sector that is highly prone to transitory shocks. In the absence of effective coping mechanisms, these households are unable to smoothen consumption and are thus likely to experience fluctuations in consumption expenditures. This study examines the effect of transitory income shocks on different categories of household expenditures, focusing on spending on essential goods and services such as food, health and education in rural Kenya. The study explores the heterogeneity in households and consumption to test the permanent income hypothesis using a sample of 5,828 rural households disaggregated along two distinct agro-ecological zones. Decomposing household income into permanent and transitory components failed to yield distinct estimates of permanent and transitory incomes when applied to this study’s data. We therefore modified the estimation approach to capture the effect of transitory income shocks by introducing a dummy of crop loss in the household expenditure equation. Our results show that in the countrywide sample, households that experienced crop loss had a statistically significant reduction in the aggregate, food and non-food expenditures compared to the ones that did not. For the high and medium potential agro-ecological zones sample, we found that consumption expenditures were not associated with crop loss. In the arid and semi-arid zones sample, aggregate and food expenditures reduced for households affected by crop loss. The findings provide a basis of policy recommendations on the need for the existing government poverty alleviation programmes to focus on drivers of impoverishment such as transitory income shocks. Keywords: transitory income shocks, consumption expenditure, agro-ecological zones, Kenya DOI: 10.7176/JESD/10-12-04 Publication date:June 30th 201

Voices from the Classroom: Experiences of Teachers of Deaf Students with Additional Disabilities

The purpose of this research is to investigate experiences of K-12 classroom teachers of deaf students with additional disabilities. Today, more deaf and hard of hearing students are identified as having additional disabilities (Bruce, DiNatale & Ford, 2008; Ewing, 2011; Gallaudet Research Institute, 2011; Jones, Jones & Ewing, 2006; Mitchell & Karchmer, 2004); there is a need to explore ways of providing educational services to these students. Utilizing a phenomenological design, data were collected using survey questionnaires, focus groups and individual interviews. Several themes emerged, such as the typical school day, previous training, and continuous professional development. Understanding the experiences of the K- 12 teachers can provide valuable information for deaf education teacher preparation programs

Organizational Culture, Industry Competition and Performance Of Microfinance Institutions In Kenya

The objective of our study is to assess the influence of organizational culture and industry competition on performance of microfinance institutions in Kenya. The population of the study comprise microfinance institutions that are members of the Association of MicrofinanceInstitutions (AMFI) in Kenya. We used descriptive cross-sectional survey design. We collected secondary data from annual industry performance reports by AMFI. Primary data were collected through structured questionnaire. We analyze data through Chi-square tests, factoranalysis and regression analysis. Results of Cronbach’s alpha test confirm reliability of our measurement scales. Our results demonstrate that organizational culture has significant positive influence on performance when the latter is measured using subjective performance indicators.However, the relationship between organizational culture and financial performance is not statistically significant. The results also indicate that industry competition has significant but, moderate positive influence on firm performance. Our results do not confirm significant influence of interaction between organizational culture and industry competition on firm performance. Finally, our results show that the joint influence of organizational culture and industry competition on performance is statistically significant. Findings of the study have implications for theory and marketing practice. Our results support resource based view and resource advantage theories of competition. The results imply that possession of strong organizational culture that enhances reconfiguration and deployment of organizational resources is a key success factor in the microfinance industry. Findings of the study also imply that industry competition is beneficial to firms within the industry. The above findings inform our conclusion that organizational culture positively and strongly influence performance outcomes in the microfinance industry. However, the study is limited by the cross-sectional research design used. Based on the limitations of the study, we recommend the use of longitudinal research design to assess changes in organizational culture and performance overtime.Key words: Organizational culture, industry competition, performance, microfinanc

PERCEIVED VALUE OF INVESTMENT PROMOTION INCENTIVES, MACROMARKETING ENVIRONMENT AND PERFORMANCE OF FIRMS IN EXPORT PROCESSING ZONES IN KENYA

The broad objective of this study was to establish the influence of perceived value ofinvestment promotion incentives, and macro-marketing environment on performance of firms in theexport processing zones (EPZs) in Kenya. It was anchored on international trade, macro-marketingand Foreign Direct Investment theories. The study tested the direct influence of investmentpromotion incentives and the moderating effect of macro-marketing environment on firmperformance. The study was a census cross-sectional survey of all EPZ firms. Secondary data wereobtained from various reports and bulletins. Primary data were collected from the study populationusing a semi-structured self-administered questionnaire. Analysis of data was done throughdescriptive and inferential statistics. Hierarchical multiple linear regression, was used to test thehypotheses. Results indicated that both the direct and moderation effects were statisticallysignificant. Findings of the study imply that provision of investment promotion incentives should besupported by conducive macro-marketing environment for desired firm performance. The resultsalso imply that the theory and concept of country marketing may guide the formulation andapplication of investment promotion strategies to position the country as an investment destination.The study has contributed to theory development, policy formulation and marketing practic

Household-specific targeting of agricultural advice via mobile phones: Feasibility of a minimum data approach for smallholder context

In recent years, agricultural extension services in developing countries have increasingly introduced modern information and communication technologies (ICT) to deliver advice. But to realize efficiency gains, digital applications may need to address heterogeneous information needs by targeting agricultural advisory contents in a household-specific way. We explore the feasibility of an automated advisory service that collects household data from farmers, for example through the keypads of conventional mobile phones, and uses this data to prioritize agricultural advisory messages accordingly. To reduce attrition, such a system must avoid lengthy inquiry. Therefore, our objective was to identify a viable trade-off between low data requirements and useful household-specific prioritizations of advisory messages. At three sites in Ethiopia, Kenya, and Tanzania in-dependently, we collected experimental preference rankings from smallholder farmers for receiving information about different agricultural and livelihood practices. At each site, we identified socio-economic household variables that improved model-based predictions of individual farmers’information preferences. We used the models to predict household-specific rankings of information options based on 2–4 variables, requiring the farmer to answer between 5 and 10 questions through an ICT interface. These predicted rankings could inform household-specific prioritizations of advisory messages in a digital agro-advisory application. Household-specific “top 3” options suggested by the models were better-fit to farmers’preferences than a random selection of 3 options by 48–68%, on average. The analysis shows that relatively limited data inputs from farmers, in a simple format, can be used to increase the client-orientation of ICT-mediated agricultural extension. This suggests that household-specific prioritization of agricultural advisory messages through digital two-way communication is feasible. In future digital agricultural advisory applications, collecting little data from farmers at each interaction may feed into learning algorithms that continuously improve the targeting of advice

Antimicrobial resistance among migrants in Europe: a systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND: Rates of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) are rising globally and there is concern that increased migration is contributing to the burden of antibiotic resistance in Europe. However, the effect of migration on the burden of AMR in Europe has not yet been comprehensively examined. Therefore, we did a systematic review and meta-analysis to identify and synthesise data for AMR carriage or infection in migrants to Europe to examine differences in patterns of AMR across migrant groups and in different settings. METHODS: For this systematic review and meta-analysis, we searched MEDLINE, Embase, PubMed, and Scopus with no language restrictions from Jan 1, 2000, to Jan 18, 2017, for primary data from observational studies reporting antibacterial resistance in common bacterial pathogens among migrants to 21 European Union-15 and European Economic Area countries. To be eligible for inclusion, studies had to report data on carriage or infection with laboratory-confirmed antibiotic-resistant organisms in migrant populations. We extracted data from eligible studies and assessed quality using piloted, standardised forms. We did not examine drug resistance in tuberculosis and excluded articles solely reporting on this parameter. We also excluded articles in which migrant status was determined by ethnicity, country of birth of participants' parents, or was not defined, and articles in which data were not disaggregated by migrant status. Outcomes were carriage of or infection with antibiotic-resistant organisms. We used random-effects models to calculate the pooled prevalence of each outcome. The study protocol is registered with PROSPERO, number CRD42016043681. FINDINGS: We identified 2274 articles, of which 23 observational studies reporting on antibiotic resistance in 2319 migrants were included. The pooled prevalence of any AMR carriage or AMR infection in migrants was 25·4% (95% CI 19·1-31·8; I2 =98%), including meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (7·8%, 4·8-10·7; I2 =92%) and antibiotic-resistant Gram-negative bacteria (27·2%, 17·6-36·8; I2 =94%). The pooled prevalence of any AMR carriage or infection was higher in refugees and asylum seekers (33·0%, 18·3-47·6; I2 =98%) than in other migrant groups (6·6%, 1·8-11·3; I2 =92%). The pooled prevalence of antibiotic-resistant organisms was slightly higher in high-migrant community settings (33·1%, 11·1-55·1; I2 =96%) than in migrants in hospitals (24·3%, 16·1-32·6; I2 =98%). We did not find evidence of high rates of transmission of AMR from migrant to host populations. INTERPRETATION: Migrants are exposed to conditions favouring the emergence of drug resistance during transit and in host countries in Europe. Increased antibiotic resistance among refugees and asylum seekers and in high-migrant community settings (such as refugee camps and detention facilities) highlights the need for improved living conditions, access to health care, and initiatives to facilitate detection of and appropriate high-quality treatment for antibiotic-resistant infections during transit and in host countries. Protocols for the prevention and control of infection and for antibiotic surveillance need to be integrated in all aspects of health care, which should be accessible for all migrant groups, and should target determinants of AMR before, during, and after migration. FUNDING: UK National Institute for Health Research Imperial Biomedical Research Centre, Imperial College Healthcare Charity, the Wellcome Trust, and UK National Institute for Health Research Health Protection Research Unit in Healthcare-associated Infections and Antimictobial Resistance at Imperial College London

Surgical site infection after gastrointestinal surgery in high-income, middle-income, and low-income countries: a prospective, international, multicentre cohort study

Background: Surgical site infection (SSI) is one of the most common infections associated with health care, but its importance as a global health priority is not fully understood. We quantified the burden of SSI after gastrointestinal surgery in countries in all parts of the world. Methods: This international, prospective, multicentre cohort study included consecutive patients undergoing elective or emergency gastrointestinal resection within 2-week time periods at any health-care facility in any country. Countries with participating centres were stratified into high-income, middle-income, and low-income groups according to the UN's Human Development Index (HDI). Data variables from the GlobalSurg 1 study and other studies that have been found to affect the likelihood of SSI were entered into risk adjustment models. The primary outcome measure was the 30-day SSI incidence (defined by US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention criteria for superficial and deep incisional SSI). Relationships with explanatory variables were examined using Bayesian multilevel logistic regression models. This trial is registered with ClinicalTrials.gov, number NCT02662231. Findings: Between Jan 4, 2016, and July 31, 2016, 13 265 records were submitted for analysis. 12 539 patients from 343 hospitals in 66 countries were included. 7339 (58·5%) patient were from high-HDI countries (193 hospitals in 30 countries), 3918 (31·2%) patients were from middle-HDI countries (82 hospitals in 18 countries), and 1282 (10·2%) patients were from low-HDI countries (68 hospitals in 18 countries). In total, 1538 (12·3%) patients had SSI within 30 days of surgery. The incidence of SSI varied between countries with high (691 [9·4%] of 7339 patients), middle (549 [14·0%] of 3918 patients), and low (298 [23·2%] of 1282) HDI (p < 0·001). The highest SSI incidence in each HDI group was after dirty surgery (102 [17·8%] of 574 patients in high-HDI countries; 74 [31·4%] of 236 patients in middle-HDI countries; 72 [39·8%] of 181 patients in low-HDI countries). Following risk factor adjustment, patients in low-HDI countries were at greatest risk of SSI (adjusted odds ratio 1·60, 95% credible interval 1·05–2·37; p=0·030). 132 (21·6%) of 610 patients with an SSI and a microbiology culture result had an infection that was resistant to the prophylactic antibiotic used. Resistant infections were detected in 49 (16·6%) of 295 patients in high-HDI countries, in 37 (19·8%) of 187 patients in middle-HDI countries, and in 46 (35·9%) of 128 patients in low-HDI countries (p < 0·001). Interpretation: Countries with a low HDI carry a disproportionately greater burden of SSI than countries with a middle or high HDI and might have higher rates of antibiotic resistance. In view of WHO recommendations on SSI prevention that highlight the absence of high-quality interventional research, urgent, pragmatic, randomised trials based in LMICs are needed to assess measures aiming to reduce this preventable complication

Globalization and Inculturation an African Perspective

Abstract I feel very challenged to tackle this topic. The reason is simple. Both key words in the topic, namely inculturation and globalizat ion, need volumes in order to make oneself fully understood. I shall, therefore, g ive my working definit ion and understanding of the two concepts and then strongly argue that they can and indeed must creatively live together in a marriage that is both ratified and consummated! The entire article is based on six main argu ments. In the first place I argue that in defining globalization, we must clearly distinguish the positive fro m the negative nature and content of globalization. I shall deal with globalizat ion fro m the point of view of its effects on the poor, the vulnerable, the marginalised and the powerless, in a word the v ictims of society, who are easily exp lo ited, oppressed, suppressed and alienated and isolated. I shall use views and perceptions of these victims to show what they consider positive and negative in globalization and what their hopes and fears are in this regard.The second argument, which runs through the paper, concerns the radical move fro m the narrow and classical understanding of inculturation to a new, dynamic, holistic and rich defin ition of inculturation. The fifty years of the inculturation movement, if we are to begin fro m 1953, Lea Pretres No ir S&apos;lnterrogent, have seen great strides in the concept and reality of inculturation. Incultuaration is no longer a concept found in universities, but one on the ground among people and in their daily lives and concrete situations. It is this new understanding of inculturation wh ich will be analyzed in view o f globalization.In the third p lace, I argue that the five models of inculturation currently in place can each absorb the positive elements of globalizat ion, while at the same time strongly and powerfully resisting the negative elements. Globalization in this view is simply one of the factors to the context in place, which context should be taken into account in any effective and relevant inculturation. The fourth argument is directly addressed to those who would wish to use the excuse of globalization to re-impose the oppressive uniformity of some so-called developed countries or Older Churches on Africa and those who think that globalization means some people and some societies must think, create, and plan for others. This is not a new reality but a very old one. Within the Catholic Church, this thinking is often linked to the group of Cardinal Ottaviani during the Vatican II. It stands for Semper Idem: One universal church, one universal theology, philosophy, liturgy, spirituality, education, one mode of th inking and acting, one vision and one ethos! This so-called g lobalized thinking is neither universal nor o rthodox. The fifth and last arguments relate to the creative manner in wh ich authentic incultration should be done and promoted taking into serious account of what is taking place with in Africa, within each country and community in Africa and in the world at large. Globalization only challenges the method in which inculturation should be conceived, the method in which it should be imp lemented in a fu lly relevant way. It is therefore not a question of either choosing inculturation or globilisation, but rather of how inculturation must control the negative aspects of globalization, shine cut clearly over globalization and relate with it relevantly, creat ively and profitably

Livelihood Diversification and Household Vulnerability to Climate Shocks in Rural Kenya

This study tests the hypothesis that livelihood diversification mitigates vulnerability to climate shocks among rural households in Kenya. The study is based on two waves of nationally-representative household survey data collected in 2005/06 and 2015/16. A measure of livelihood diversification in the sampled households was computed using Simpson Diversity Index. Comparison of means and correlation analysis was used to test the study’s hypothesis on a sample of 8,483 and 12,217 rural households in 2005/06 and 2015/16 respectively. Consistent with the study’s hypothesis, results indicate lower mean values of livelihood diversification indices for rural households that reported loss in welfare due to climate shocks compared to those that reported no adverse effects in both 2005/06 and 2015/16. Correlation analysis results indicate an inverse relationship between livelihood diversification and vulnerability to climate shocks for all sampled households. Distinctive and nuanced differences in results were found when analysis was disaggregated along income classes and agro-ecological zones. Sensitivity analysis confirmed robustness of the results. Based on these results, it is recommended that rural households be supported to pursue a diverse portfolio of income generating activities and assets in order to build resilience against climate shocks

Infrastructure Growth, Household Vulnerability and Response to Shocks in Kenya

Households in most rural areas of developing countries are likely to suffer shocks contributed by their livelihoods’ dependence on natural resources as well as due to their physical isolation from the mainstream economy Using pooled cross-sectional data from Kenya, this paper investigates the association between changes in physical infrastructure stocks and access levels on one hand, and household vulnerability to shocks as well as the response strategies to shocks as markets for risk sharing develop and transaction costs are reduced over time through physical infrastructure growth. Results reveal that between 2005/06 and 2015/16, there was a reduction in household vulnerability to the general shocks with the reduction being higher for urban households; rural households’ vulnerability to food shocks reduced more compared to urban households; and finally, both rural and urban households increased their use of infrastructure-supported ex-post coping strategies such as savings and borrowing to respond to food-security shocks, with the adoption being higher by five percentage points among rural households. The study finds a plausible association between physical infrastructure changes and household vulnerability and coping strategies to shocks. The findings imply the importance of developing physical infrastructure as a strategy for reducing vulnerability to livelihood shocks