Global, regional, and national incidence, prevalence, and years lived with disability for 310 diseases and injuries, 1990-2015:a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2015

Background Non-fatal outcomes of disease and injury increasingly detract from the ability of the world's population to live in full health, a trend largely attributable to an epidemiological transition in many countries from causes affecting children, to non-communicable diseases (NCDs) more common in adults. For the Global Burden of Diseases, Injuries, and Risk Factors Study 2015 (GBD 2015), we estimated the incidence, prevalence, and years lived with disability for diseases and injuries at the global, regional, and national scale over the period of 1990 to 2015.Methods We estimated incidence and prevalence by age, sex, cause, year, and geography with a wide range of updated and standardised analytical procedures. Improvements from GBD 2013 included the addition of new data sources, updates to literature reviews for 85 causes, and the identification and inclusion of additional studies published up to November, 2015, to expand the database used for estimation of non-fatal outcomes to 60 900 unique data sources. Prevalence and incidence by cause and sequelae were determined with DisMod-MR 2.1, an improved version of the DisMod-MR Bayesian meta-regression tool first developed for GBD 2010 and GBD 2013. For some causes, we used alternative modelling strategies where the complexity of the disease was not suited to DisMod-MR 2.1 or where incidence and prevalence needed to be determined from other data. For GBD 2015 we created a summary indicator that combines measures of income per capita, educational attainment, and fertility (the Socio-demographic Index [SDI]) and used it to compare observed patterns of health loss to the expected pattern for countries or locations with similar SDI scores.Findings We generated 9.3 billion estimates from the various combinations of prevalence, incidence, and YLDs for causes, sequelae, and impairments by age, sex, geography, and year. In 2015, two causes had acute incidences in excess of 1 billion: upper respiratory infections (17.2 billion, 95% uncertainty interval [UI] 15.4-19.2 billion) and diarrhoeal diseases (2.39 billion, 2.30-2.50 billion). Eight causes of chronic disease and injury each affected more than 10% of the world's population in 2015: permanent caries, tension-type headache, iron-deficiency anaemia, age-related and other hearing loss, migraine, genital herpes, refraction and accommodation disorders, and ascariasis. The impairment that affected the greatest number of people in 2015 was anaemia, with 2.36 billion (2.35-2.37 billion) individuals affected. The second and third leading impairments by number of individuals affected were hearing loss and vision loss, respectively. Between 2005 and 2015, there was little change in the leading causes of years lived with disability (YLDs) on a global basis. NCDs accounted for 18 of the leading 20 causes of age-standardised YLDs on a global scale. Where rates were decreasing, the rate of decrease for YLDs was slower than that of years of life lost (YLLs) for nearly every cause included in our analysis. For low SDI geographies, Group 1 causes typically accounted for 20-30% of total disability, largely attributable to nutritional deficiencies, malaria, neglected tropical diseases, HIV/AIDS, and tuberculosis. Lower back and neck pain was the leading global cause of disability in 2015 in most countries. The leading cause was sense organ disorders in 22 countries in Asia and Africa and one in central Latin America; diabetes in four countries in Oceania; HIV/AIDS in three southern sub-Saharan African countries; collective violence and legal intervention in two north African and Middle Eastern countries; iron-deficiency anaemia in Somalia and Venezuela; depression in Uganda; onchoceriasis in Liberia; and other neglected tropical diseases in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.Interpretation Ageing of the world's population is increasing the number of people living with sequelae of diseases and injuries. Shifts in the epidemiological profile driven by socioeconomic change also contribute to the continued increase in years lived with disability (YLDs) as well as the rate of increase in YLDs. Despite limitations imposed by gaps in data availability and the variable quality of the data available, the standardised and comprehensive approach of the GBD study provides opportunities to examine broad trends, compare those trends between countries or subnational geographies, benchmark against locations at similar stages of development, and gauge the strength or weakness of the estimates available. Copyright (C) The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd.</p

The effective eradication and control strategies for tsetse and trypanosomiasis the Kenyan experience

I conducted an extensive literature review on the effective tsetse and trypanosomiasis eradication method strategies in Africa in 2010 as i embarked on my research that coincided with the formulation of the Tsetse and Trypanosomiasis Eradication Strategy for Kenya spearheaded by Pan African Tsetse and Trypanosomiasis Eradication Campaign (PATTEC), Kenya. Trypanosomiasis is a zoonotic disease transmitted mainly by tsetse flies, Glossina genus and affects humans and domestic animals. Tsetse flies are an important livestock disease pest infesting over 138,000 square kilometers in Kenya. Trypanosomes are protozoan blood parasites that cause animal and human trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness Effective control methods are based on:• Parasite control which involves chemotherapy (use of trypanocidal drugs) to kill the trypanosomes inside the body of the animal. Regular active surveillance (screening) involving case detection and treatment of human /animal rypanosomiasis is necessary in parasite control. Systematic vector control which is done through spraying with insecticides, targets and traps technique and the sterile insect technique which targets to kill the tsetse fly in its natural habitats.• Exploitation of trypano-tolerant livestock through active selection for trypanosomiasis resistant traits in livestock and subsequent breeding.Over the past 100 years a whole range of control strategies for tsetse and trypanosomiasis control have been deployed in the Eastern, Central and West Africa including Kenya. Unfortunately, none of the methods or a combination of them has led to a lasting solution to the problem of the disease in humans and animals. Consequently, gains made are often lost mainly because land use practices cannot cope with rate of reclamation. Integrated use of the various control methods is the most certain strategy to guarantee trypanosomiasis eradication. Long term commitment rather than supporting crisis management by govern ments of endemic countries and international community to trypanosomiasis control/eradication programs is essential for sustainability since trypanosomiasis affects the poorest of African countriesKey words: Tsetse and Trypanosomiasis; Parasite control; Vector control ; Trypanotolerant cattle; Kenya; Long term commitment

Electrochemistry on a localized surface plasmon resonance sensor

The optical signal of a localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR)-based sensor combined with electrochemistry was investigated. Gold nanoparticles were immobilized on an indium tin oxide (ITO) substrate, which functioned as working electrode. Using cyclic voltammetry synchronized with LSPR sensing, surface reactions on gold were detected both electrically and optically. In the capacitive charging regime, optical signals linear to the applied potential were detected. Gold was found to be dissolved above the oxidation potential and partially redeposited during the reduction, which changed size and conformation of the gold nanoparticles. In kinetic measurements, slower potential establishment was observed at lower salt concentrations. Simulations by multiple multipole program (MMP) suggested the formation of a lossy layer by combination of charge depletion of gold and negative ion adsorption even below the reaction potential. We consider the results presented here of importance for any future sensors based on combined plasmonics and electrochemistry

Kinetic, equilibrium and thermodynamic studies of nickel adsorption in batch on a red alga corallina elongata

Nickel is a heavy metal used in many industries such as electroplating, battery manufacture, forging, finishing and metal extraction, which contributes to environmental pollution (Salini et al. in Sep Sci Technol 51:1317–1327, 2016)