Echinococcus shiquicus and Echinococcus felidis

Currently, ten genotypes (G1-G10) of Echinococcus Sensu Lato have been explicitly identified on the basis of taxonomic criteria. These include morphometric keys, host specificity, geographical distribution, phylogenetic analysis and genome mapping. However, a few emergent species of genus Echinococcus have been indigenously confirmed in some autonomous regions of Tibet plateau and Africa where there is little known about their biological aspects and potential pathogenicity in intermediate and definitive hosts. This chapter is focused on the parasite history, life cycle, phenotypic aspects, epidemiology, zoonotic potential and phylogeny relationship of two enigmatic parasites namely: Echinococcus shiquicus and Echinococcus felidis. This aims to provide a better understanding of their taxonomic status, public health problems and biological features in the mentioned regions

The Associations of<i>Leishmania major</i>and<i>Leishmania tropica</i>Aspects by Focusing Their Morphological and Molecular Features on Clinical Appearances in Khuzestan Province, Iran

Cutaneous leishmaniasis has various phenotypic aspects consisting of polymorphic amastigotes with different genetic ranges. Samples were collected from suspected patients of Khuzestan province. Prepared smears were stained, scaled, and measured using ocular micrometer. The Cytb, ITS-rDNA, and microsatellite genes ofLeishmaniawere amplified andLeishmaniaspecies were identified by molecular analyses. Of 150 examined suspected patients, 102 were identified toLeishmaniaspecies (90L. major, nineL. tropica, and three unidentified). The amastigotes of 90L. majorhad regular and different irregular shapes within three clinical lesions with no and/or low genetic diversity. Three haplotypes of CytbofL. majorwere found but no variation was observed using ITS-rDNA gene. Interesting findings were that all nineL. tropicahad regular amastigote shapes with more genetic variations, also a patient which had coinfection ofL. major,L. tropica, andCrithidia.At least twoL. majorandL. tropicawere identified in suspected patients of the regions. Different irregular amastigotes’ shapes ofL. majorcan be explained by various reservoir hosts and vectors. In contrast, more molecular variations inL. tropicacould be justified by genetic characters. UnidentifiedLeishmaniacould be mixed pathogens or nonpathogens with mammals’LeishmaniaorCrithidia.</jats:p

Molecular Characterization and Phylogenetic Analysis of Flea Species in Human and Livestock Residence by Targeting ITS2 Region in East Azerbaijan Province, Iran

Background: Fleas are blood-sucking ectoparasites with complete metamorphosis. They belong to the order Si­phonaptera and can infest both humans and animals, causing dermatitis and transmitting vector-borne diseases. De­spite extensive study of their classification and biology, the phylogenetic relationship between fleas in Iran is not fully understood. This research aimed to identify the flea species collected from different parts of East Azerbaijan Province in northwest Iran, using morphological, molecular, and phylogenetic analysis. Methods: From October 2019 to October 2020, we collected fleas using various methods such as hand catching for humans, brushing for dogs and cats, sticky traps for rodent burrows, light traps, and dishes with water for sheep and goats. After identifying the flea species using morphological identification keys, we extracted total genomic DNA and amplified it by targeting the ITS2 region. The PCR products were then directly sequenced to investigate the flea species. Results: In total, 1929 flea specimens were collected, revealing three genera and four species. The breakdown of the specimens is as follows: Pulex irritans (n=1206; 62.5%), Ctenocephalides canis (n=345; 18%), Ctenocephalides felis felis (n=203; 10.5%), Ctenocephalides felis orientis (n=160; 8%), and Xenopsylla nuttalli (n=15; 1%). Phyloge­netic analysis indicated low to moderate haplotype diversity (Hd: 0−0.524) across five distinct clades: P. irritans, C. canis, C. felis felis, C. felis orientis, and X. nuttalli. Conclusion: This study represents the first in-depth analysis in East Azerbaijan Province, highlighting the signifi­cance of considering P. irritans as a major vector when assessing the risk of local disease transmission

IL-17 and IL-22 elicited by a DNA vaccine encoding ROP13 associated with protection against Toxoplasma gondii in BALB/c mice.

Toxoplasma gondii, an intracellular parasitic protozoan, is capable of infecting man and all warm-blooded animals. Cell-mediated immunity is vital in mounting protective responses against T. gondii infection. Recent studies have shown that T-helper (Th) 17 responses may play a key role in parasite control. In this current study, we constructed a DNA vaccine encoding T. gondii ROP13 in a pcDNA vector. Groups of BALB/c mice were immunized intramuscularly with pcROP13 or controls and challenged with the RH strain of T. gondii. The results showed that immunization with pcROP13 could elicit an antibody response against T. gondii. The expression of the canonical Th17 cytokines, interleukin (IL)-17 and IL-22, were significantly increased after immunization with pcROP13 compared with control groups ( p < 0.05). Furthermore, vaccination resulted in a significant decrease in parasite load ( p < 0.05). The induction of Th17 related cytokines, using a ROP13 DNA vaccine, against T. gondii should be considered as a potential vaccine approach for the control of toxoplasmosis

Frequency of Intestinal Parasites among Zoo Animal by Morphometric Criteria and First Report of the Bivitellobilharzia nairi from Elephant (Elephasmaximus maximus) in Iran

Background: Intestinal parasitic infections are major causative agents of wildlife health complications among different parts of the world. This study aimed to investigate the gastro-intestinal parasites in feces of the zoo animals based on parasitological and morphometric criteria. Methods: One hundred fresh fecal samples were collected from 35 species of animal lived in Eram park zoo, Tehran, Central Iran during Oct 2015 to Jun 2015. All collected samples were examined by microscopic observation following direct wet mount preparation (normal saline and Lugol's iodine), formalin-ether concentration, and permanent staining. The morphometric aspects of the recovered eggs were surveyed with the aid of Camera Lucida (×400). Results: 65.7% (23/35) of zoo animal species were infected with intestinal parasites. The superfamily Trichostrongyloidea (6/16) and Strongylus sp. (16/4) were the most prevalent helminthic infections, while Blastocystis sp. (6/14), Entamoeba cyst (3/14) and Eimeria sp. (3/14) were the common protozoan parasites. For the first time, Bivitellobilharzia nairi egg was identified an elephant at Iran. Intestinal parasitic infections were apparently circulating among animals of the Eram park zoo. Conclusion: Identified parasitic infections can consider as a threatening source to visitors and workers' health that have contact with animals or their feces. Therefore, the effectual preventive strategies should be addressed to determine the risk factors, mechanisms of cross-transmission of parasite, the importance of applying the hygienic practices and well adjusting deworming programs for the animals, zoo workers and visitors

Phylogeography, Genetic Diversity and Population Structure of Echinococcus granulosus Sensu Stricto Inferred by Mitochondrial DNA Markers between Southeast of Iran and Pakistan

Background: Current study was designed to provide a better insight into the circulating genotypes, genetic diversity, and population structure of Echinococcus spp. between southeast of Iran and Pakistan. Methods: From Jun 2020 to Dec 2020, 46 hydatid cysts were taken from human (n: 6), camel (n: 10), goat (n: 10), cattle (n: 10) and sheep (n: 10) in various cities of Sistan and Baluchestan Province of Iran, located at the neighborhood of Pakistan. DNA samples were extracted, amplified, and subjected to sequence analysis of cox1 and nad1 genes. Results: The phylogeny inferred by the Maximum Likelihood algorithm indicated that G1 genotype (n: 19), G3 genotype (n: 14) and G6 genotype (n: 13) assigned into their specific clades. The diversity indices showed a moderate (nad1: Hd: 0.485) to high hap- lotype diversity (cox1: Hd: 0.867) of E. granulosus s.s. (G1/G3) and low nucleotide diver- sity. The negative value of Tajima’s D and Fu’s Fs test displayed deviation from neutrali- ty indicating a recent population expansion. A parsimonious network of the haplotypes of cox1 displayed star-like features in the overall population containing IR9/PAK1/G1, IR2/PAK2/G3 and IR18/G6 as the most common haplotypes. A pairwise fixation index (Fst) indicated that E. granulosus s.s. populations are genetically moderate differen- tiated between southeast of Iran and Pakistan. The extension of haplotypes PAK18/G1 (sheep) and PAK26/G1 (cattle) toward Iranian haplogroup revealed that there is dawn of Echinococcus flow due to a transfer of alleles between mentioned populations through transport of livestock or their domestication. Conclusion: The current findings strengthen our knowledge concerning the evolution- ary paradigms of E. granulosus in southeastern borders of Iran and is effective in control- ling of hydatidosis

Screening and molecular characterization of Trichomonas vaginalis genotypes isolated from married women in northern Iran

. Trichomonas vaginalis is an anaerobic protozoan parasite that causes trichomonosis in human. It is one of the most common non-viral sexually transmitted infections. It has been found to be most prevalent in patients referred to sexually transmitted disease clinics. In recent years, molecular methods have been used to identify genotypes of this parasite in different parts of the world and so far 6 types of T. vaginalis have identified. The aim of this study was to investigate the prevalence and genotype identification of T. vaginalis from married women in northern Iran. A total of 450 vaginal specimens were taken from married women, referring to health centers in northern Iran. Demographic information of women was collected through a questionnaire. The samples were first examined microscopically and then monitored in Dorsch culture medium for up to 10 days. Actin genes of positive samples were amplified by PCR. Finally, PCR products were used to determine the sequence and genotype of the parasite. Overall, 0.7% (3/450) samples were positive for T. vaginalis. All of the three infected women were housewives. After sequencing, the genotype of these parasites were type H (66.7%) (Accession no; MW414672-MW414673) and type E (33.3%) (Accession no; MW414671). Low prevalence of T. vaginalis in north of Iran indicate high level of hygiene in sexual intercourse and avoiding from high risk sexual behaviors, and also it seems that genotype H is dominant type of the parasite in the study area

Molecular Identification and Phylogenetic Classification of Leishmania spp. Isolated from Human Cutaneous Leishmaniasis in Iran: A Cross-sectional Study

Background: In Iran, both forms of cutaneous (CL) and visceral leishmaniasis (VL) have been reported; so the accurate species identification of the parasite(s) and the analysis of genetic diversity are necessary. Methods: The smears were collected from lesions samples of 654 patients with CL, who attended local health centers in 12 provinces of Iran during 2013-2015. The smears were checked for the presence of amastigotes by light microscopy. DNA of 648 Leishmania isolates, amplified by targeting a partial sequence of ITS (18S rRNA–ITS1–5.8S rRNA–ITS2) gene. Twenty-five of all the amplicons were sequenced and analyzed with restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) using the Taq1 enzyme. Results: All the smears were positive microscopically. The PCR-RFLP analysis revealed that 176 (27%) CL patients were infected with L. tropica and, 478 (73%) with L. major. The dominant species in all over Iran is L. major. The sequencing results of all CL patients and RFLP analysis confirmed each other. Based on our phylogenetic tree, 25 ITS DNA sequences were grouped into two clusters representing L. major and L. tropica species. Phylogenetic tree derived from the ITS sequences supports a clear divergence between L. major from the other species. Conclusion: Discrimination of Iranian Leishmania isolates using ITS gene gives us this opportunity to detect, identify, and construct the phylogenetic relationship of Iranian isolates

Global burden of 87 risk factors in 204 countries and territories, 1990–2019: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019

Background: Rigorous analysis of levels and trends in exposure to leading risk factors and quantification of their effect on human health are important to identify where public health is making progress and in which cases current efforts are inadequate. The Global Burden of Diseases, Injuries, and Risk Factors Study (GBD) 2019 provides a standardised and comprehensive assessment of the magnitude of risk factor exposure, relative risk, and attributable burden of disease. Methods: GBD 2019 estimated attributable mortality, years of life lost (YLLs), years of life lived with disability (YLDs), and disability-adjusted life-years (DALYs) for 87 risk factors and combinations of risk factors, at the global level, regionally, and for 204 countries and territories. GBD uses a hierarchical list of risk factors so that specific risk factors (eg, sodium intake), and related aggregates (eg, diet quality), are both evaluated. This method has six analytical steps. (1) We included 560 risk–outcome pairs that met criteria for convincing or probable evidence on the basis of research studies. 12 risk–outcome pairs included in GBD 2017 no longer met inclusion criteria and 47 risk–outcome pairs for risks already included in GBD 2017 were added based on new evidence. (2) Relative risks were estimated as a function of exposure based on published systematic reviews, 81 systematic reviews done for GBD 2019, and meta-regression. (3) Levels of exposure in each age-sex-location-year included in the study were estimated based on all available data sources using spatiotemporal Gaussian process regression, DisMod-MR 2.1, a Bayesian meta-regression method, or alternative methods. (4) We determined, from published trials or cohort studies, the level of exposure associated with minimum risk, called the theoretical minimum risk exposure level. (5) Attributable deaths, YLLs, YLDs, and DALYs were computed by multiplying population attributable fractions (PAFs) by the relevant outcome quantity for each age-sex-location-year. (6) PAFs and attributable burden for combinations of risk factors were estimated taking into account mediation of different risk factors through other risk factors. Across all six analytical steps, 30 652 distinct data sources were used in the analysis. Uncertainty in each step of the analysis was propagated into the final estimates of attributable burden. Exposure levels for dichotomous, polytomous, and continuous risk factors were summarised with use of the summary exposure value to facilitate comparisons over time, across location, and across risks. Because the entire time series from 1990 to 2019 has been re-estimated with use of consistent data and methods, these results supersede previously published GBD estimates of attributable burden. Findings: The largest declines in risk exposure from 2010 to 2019 were among a set of risks that are strongly linked to social and economic development, including household air pollution; unsafe water, sanitation, and handwashing; and child growth failure. Global declines also occurred for tobacco smoking and lead exposure. The largest increases in risk exposure were for ambient particulate matter pollution, drug use, high fasting plasma glucose, and high body-mass index. In 2019, the leading Level 2 risk factor globally for attributable deaths was high systolic blood pressure, which accounted for 10·8 million (95% uncertainty interval [UI] 9·51–12·1) deaths (19·2% [16·9–21·3] of all deaths in 2019), followed by tobacco (smoked, second-hand, and chewing), which accounted for 8·71 million (8·12–9·31) deaths (15·4% [14·6–16·2] of all deaths in 2019). The leading Level 2 risk factor for attributable DALYs globally in 2019 was child and maternal malnutrition, which largely affects health in the youngest age groups and accounted for 295 million (253–350) DALYs (11·6% [10·3–13·1] of all global DALYs that year). The risk factor burden varied considerably in 2019 between age groups and locations. Among children aged 0–9 years, the three leading detailed risk factors for attributable DALYs were all related to malnutrition. Iron deficiency was the leading risk factor for those aged 10–24 years, alcohol use for those aged 25–49 years, and high systolic blood pressure for those aged 50–74 years and 75 years and older. Interpretation: Overall, the record for reducing exposure to harmful risks over the past three decades is poor. Success with reducing smoking and lead exposure through regulatory policy might point the way for a stronger role for public policy on other risks in addition to continued efforts to provide information on risk factor harm to the general public