The Fraud Act 2006 : The E-crime Prosecutor’s Champion or the Creator of a New Inchoate Offence?

An analysis of whether the Fraud Act 2006 is sufficently rebust to be able to tackle the challenges of e-crimePeer reviewedFinal Accepted Versio

Fundamental Rights of workers in the Digital Age: A methodological approach from a case study. WP C.S.D.L.E. "Massimo D'Antona" .INT - 89/2011

The relationship between employer and worker is not only obligatory but above all, as Sinzheimer said, a ‘relationship of power’. In the Digital Age this statement is confirmed by the massive introduction of ICT in most of the companies that increase, in practice, employer’s supervisory powers. This is a worrying issue for two reasons: on one hand, ICT emerge as a new way to weaken the effectiveness of fundamental rights and the right to dignity of workers; and, on the other hand, Spanish legal system does not offer appropriate solutions to ensure that efficacy. Moreover, in a scenario characterized by a hybridization of legal systems models –in which traditional hard law methods are combined with soft law and self regulation instruments–, the role of our case law has become very important in this issue. Nevertheless, despite the increase of judicialization undergone, solutions offered by Courts are so different that do not give enough legal certainty. Facing this situation, I suggest a methodological approach –using Alchourron and Bulygin’s normative systems theory and Alexy’s fundamental rights theory– which can open new spaces of decision to legal operators in order to solve properly these problems. This proposal can allow setting a policy that guarantees fundamental rights of workers, deepening their human freedom in companies from the Esping-Andersen’s de-commodification perspective. With this purpose, I examine electronic communications in the company as a case study

XML content warehousing: Improving sociological studies of mailing lists and web data

In this paper, we present the guidelines for an XML-based approach for the sociological study of Web data such as the analysis of mailing lists or databases available online. The use of an XML warehouse is a flexible solution for storing and processing this kind of data. We propose an implemented solution and show possible applications with our case study of profiles of experts involved in W3C standard-setting activity. We illustrate the sociological use of semi-structured databases by presenting our XML Schema for mailing-list warehousing. An XML Schema allows many adjunctions or crossings of data sources, without modifying existing data sets, while allowing possible structural evolution. We also show that the existence of hidden data implies increased complexity for traditional SQL users. XML content warehousing allows altogether exhaustive warehousing and recursive queries through contents, with far less dependence on the initial storage. We finally present the possibility of exporting the data stored in the warehouse to commonly-used advanced software devoted to sociological analysis

CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY IN ROMANIA

The purpose of this paper is to identify the main opportunities and limitations of corporate social responsibility (CSR). The survey was defined with the aim to involve the highest possible number of relevant CSR topics and give the issue a more wholesome perspective. It provides a basis for further comprehension and deeper analyses of specific CSR areas. The conditions determining the success of CSR in Romania have been defined in the paper on the basis of the previously cumulative knowledge as well as the results of various researches. This paper provides knowledge which may be useful in the programs promoting CSR.Corporate social responsibility, Supportive policies, Romania

Proposal for a Single Securities Commission: Comments and Discussion

This report analyzes and comments on the principal arguments put forward by the Crawford Panel to support the establishment of a single securities commission in Canada. One argument advanced is that the current rules-based regulatory structure should be replaced with a principles-based approach similar to that of the United Kingdom’s Alternative Investment Market (AIM). According to the Panel, this approach would allow for a relaxation of the conditions for corporate financing. We will point out the very distinctive characteristics of the Canadian market, which allows emerging companies—those without income and even without any revenue—to carry out initial and subsequent rounds of financing. Our estimates indicate that such financing is carried out at an advantageous cost, and the survival of new issuers seems more certain in Canada than in other countries where the rules for listing on a stock exchange are more restrictive. We believe it would be difficult to further relax the rules of a market in which 45% of issuers are able to list their securities on a stock exchange without reporting any revenue and in which 71% of new exchange registrants do not earn any income. This situation is unparalleled in the world. We will show that adopting a system similar to the AIM model would result in a significant percentage of existing issuers no longer being able to access the market. We therefore concur fully with the opinion expressed by one of the experts enlisted by the Panel, namely, that adopting a system similar to the AIM model in Canada is neither feasible nor desirable. The Panel expressed concern about the conditions for the financing of junior issuers. We will show that, in general, the direct costs of such financings are lower in Canada than in the United States. We will see that, in fact, there is a very high number of small offerings and issues in Canada. The Canadian markets seem to have developed strategies that are well suited to the characteristics of an economy heavily dependent on small-cap companies and on the resource sector. An analysis of all financings, including traditional and non-traditional stock exchange listings as well as subsequent financings (a total of more than 10,000 transactions), clearly shows that financings are very small and are carried out locally and, in 77% of cases, by issuers from outside Ontario. The Panel also expressed concern about the level of competitiveness of the Canadian market; this is a concern that we share. We will show that the principal challenge faced by the Canadian market is the gradual shift of transactions involving cross-listed securities to the U.S. market. In contrast to the Panel, we do not believe that AIM listings constitute a major problem. When Canadian companies cross-list their securities, they opt for the U.S. market at a ratio of eight to one. The migration of companies and transactions towards the U.S. market has many causes, but it would be very difficult to argue that the regulatory structure is a key factor. The argument whereby the costs of capital are lower in the U.S. does not stand up to analysis. Several recent and thorough studies indicate that the difference in these costs between the two countries is minimal, leaning in favour of one country or the other depending on the study. Our own findings show that Canadian companies that cross-list their securities do not benefit from any lower costs. The decision to list securities on a foreign market is driven primarily by strategic business factors and by the search for large pools of investors. In that regard, Canada has no advantage, and it seems unlikely that regulatory changes will convert Canada into a significant source of financing for foreign companies. In our opinion, efforts should be focused, above all, on improving and sustaining the financing options available to Canadian issuers. The Panel has argued that establishing a single commission is necessary for improving enforcement of securities laws in Canada. In this regard, Canada is often compared to the United States. An analysis of data on sanctions shows, firstly, that the SEC is far from being the source of the majority of sanctions imposed on financial market participants. It initiates less than 10% of proceedings involving financial matters and imposes less than one quarter of all monetary sanctions. Secondly, there has been an increase in sanctions imposed in Canada in this area. Thirdly, there are major differences between Canada and other countries. This explains the differences observed and perceived as regards enforcement. The experts enlisted by the Panel have, in fact, recommended a series of eight actions and have suggested, in the eighth item, pan-Canadian enforcement of the law. Consequently, these experts have not concluded that centralization of the securities commissions is an indispensable condition for enhancing the enforcement of securities laws. The issue of costs arises very often in discussions regarding the Canadian regulatory system. Yet, there is little evidence showing that the current regulatory structure leads to significant costs for investors or issuers. The costs of the regulatory authorities represent a negligible percentage of the transaction costs borne by investors and of revenues from brokerage activities in Canada. The direct costs of regulatory authorities are lower than those incurred in other countries, when expressed on the basis of the number of reporting issuers. Finally, arguments to the effect that a single commission would generate substantial savings are less than convincing. Such savings would be possible only if the activities of securities commissions outside Ontario were virtually abolished. Three elements appear from our analysis. First and foremost, the principal arguments put forward by the Panel to justify the urgency of centralizing securities commissions in Canada do not stand up to analysis and are, at times, contradicted by the research and the experts mandated by the Panel itself. Secondly, the major challenge faced by the Canadian market—the shift of enterprises and transactions to the U.S.—does not seem to have been perceived as such or even discussed. Finally, we believe it is essential to recognize and preserve the distinctive characteristics of the existing market. It is a market that welcomes growth companies and small-cap companies, is highly decentralized and is apparently very favourable to issuers. Ce rapport analyse et commente les principaux arguments avancés par le Comité Crawford pour justifier l’instauration d’une commission des valeurs mobilières unique au Canada. Un premier argument défend que la structure actuelle de réglementation, basée sur des règles, devrait être remplacée par une approche basée sur des principes, inspirée de l’expérience de l’Alternative Investment Market (AIM) au Royaume-Uni. Selon le Comité, cette approche permettrait d’assouplir les conditions de financement des sociétés. Nous montrons les caractéristiques très particulières du marché canadien, qui permet les financements initiaux et subséquents de sociétés en développement, sans bénéfice et même sans revenu. Nos estimations indiquent que ce financement se fait à un coût avantageux, et la survie des nouveaux émetteurs semble plus assurée au Canada que dans d’autres pays où les règles d’admission en Bourse sont plus restrictives. Nous considérons qu’il semble difficile d’assouplir encore les règles d’un marché où 45 % des émetteurs s’inscrivent en Bourse sans rapporter de revenu et où 71 % des nouveaux inscrits en Bourse ne rapportent pas de bénéfice. Cette situation n’a pas d’équivalent au monde. Nous montrons que l’imposition d’un système semblable à celui de l’AIM ferait qu’une proportion importante des émetteurs actuels ne pourrait plus accéder au marché. Nous rejoignons donc totalement l’avis de l’un des experts engagés par le Comité, qui indique que l’imposition d’un système semblable à celui de l’AIM au Canada n’est ni possible, ni souhaitable. Le Comité est préoccupé par les conditions de financement des émetteurs de petite taille. Nous montrons que les coûts directs de ces financements sont, de façon générale, moins élevés au Canada qu’ils ne le sont aux États-Unis. Nous indiquons par ailleurs la fréquence très élevée des émissions et placements de petite taille au Canada. Les marchés canadiens semblent avoir développé des stratégies bien adaptées aux spécificités d’une économie qui repose fortement sur les entreprises faiblement capitalisées et sur le secteur des ressources. Lorsqu’on analyse l’ensemble des opérations de financement, incluant les entrées en Bourse conventionnelles ou non ainsi que les financements subséquents (soit plus de 10 000 opérations), il apparaît nettement que les financements sont de très petite taille, effectués localement et, à 77 %, levés par des émetteurs non ontariens. Le Comité est soucieux du niveau de compétitivité du marché canadien et nous partageons ses inquiétudes. Notamment, nous avons montré que le principal défi auquel fait face ce marché provient du glissement progressif des transactions portant sur les titres interlistés vers le marché américain. Contrairement au Comité, nous défendons que les inscriptions sur l’AIM ne constituent pas un problème majeur. Lorsqu’elles s’interlistent, les sociétés canadiennes optent pour le marché américain dans une proportion de huit à une. La migration des sociétés et des transactions vers le marché américain a des causes multiples, mais il semble très difficile de prétendre que la structure des organismes de réglementation y soit un facteur déterminant. L’argument voulant que le coût du capital soit inférieur aux États-Unis ne résiste pas à l’analyse. Plusieurs études récentes et rigoureuses indiquent que la différence, à ce niveau, est infime entre les deux pays, et le sens de la différence varie suivant les travaux. Nos propres résultats indiquent que les sociétés canadiennes qui s’interlistent ne bénéficient d’aucune diminution de ce coût. Les décisions de s’inscrire sur un marché étranger sont essentiellement liées aux considérations stratégiques des entreprises et à la recherche de bassins importants d’investisseurs. Sur ce plan, le Canada ne bénéficie d’aucun avantage et il semble peu vraisemblable que des changements réglementaires puissent faire du Canada une base importante de financement de sociétés non canadiennes. Il nous semble que les efforts devraient être, avant tout, consacrés à améliorer et pérenniser les possibilités de financement des émetteurs canadiens. Le Comité défend que l’instauration d’une commission unique est nécessaire pour améliorer l’application de la Loi au Canada. Sur ce plan le Canada est souvent comparé aux États-Unis. L’analyse des données sur les sanctions indique premièrement que la SEC n’est pas, et de loin, à l’origine de la majorité des sanctions obtenues contre des intervenants du marché financier. Elle est à l’origine de moins de 10 % des poursuites en matière financière et impose moins du quart du total des sanctions monétaires. Deuxièmement, nous observons une augmentation des sanctions imposées au Canada en ce domaine. Troisièmement, il existe d’importantes différences entre le Canada et les autres pays, qui expliquent les écarts observés et perçus dans la rigueur de l’application de la Loi. Les experts engagés par le Comité recommandent d’ailleurs un ensemble de huit actions différentes et suggèrent, au huitième point, une application pancanadienne de la Loi. Ces experts ne concluent donc pas que la centralisation des commissions des valeurs mobilières soit la condition indispensable à un renforcement de l’application de la Loi. La problématique des coûts est très souvent mentionnée dans le débat entourant la réglementation canadienne. Il existe pourtant peu d’évidence à l’effet que la structure de réglementation actuelle induit des coûts significatifs pour les investisseurs et même pour les émetteurs. Les coûts des organismes de réglementation représentent une proportion infime des coûts de transactions supportés par les investisseurs ou encore des revenus de l’activité du courtage au Canada. Les coûts directs provoqués par les organismes de réglementation sont inférieurs à ceux encourus dans les autres pays, dès qu’on les exprime sur la base du nombre d’émetteurs assujettis. Enfin, les évidences à l’effet qu’une commission unique permettrait des économies importantes semblent peu convaincantes. Ces économies ne sont possibles que si l’activité des commissions des valeurs mobilières en dehors de l’Ontario est pratiquement abolie. Trois éléments découlent de notre analyse. En premier lieu, les principaux éléments avancés par le Comité pour justifier l’urgence de centraliser les commissions des valeurs mobilières au Canada résistent mal à l’analyse et sont parfois contredits par la recherche ou par les experts mandatés par ce même Comité. En second lieu, le défi majeur auquel semble confronté le marché canadien ne semble ni être perçu comme tel, ni être traité : il s’agit du glissement des entreprises et des transactions vers les États-Unis. Enfin, il nous semble essentiel de reconnaître et préserver les caractéristiques particulières du marché actuel, largement ouvert aux sociétés en croissance et de petite taille, très décentralisé et apparemment très favorable aux émetteurs.

Incentives for Municipal Planning towards Citizen-centric Public e-Government - Swedish empirics

This paper offers critical aspects on this ongoing development within the Swedish municipalities with the strategic use of ICT , for the purpose to create a digital government and to making public administration more citizen-oriented, efficient, and responsive to the needs of the public. It aims to discuss incentives for local planning towards citizen-centric public e-government based on lessons and critical aspects learned from case studies of the implementation of public contact center implementation within Swedish municipalities. A recent Swedish governmental action plan stresses the importance of using ICT in order to effectively develop the Swedish public administration with the aim to â€make it as simple as possible for as many as possible†leading to improved accessibility for the citizens. This has led to that more and more public contact centers have been established in Swedish municipalities. The action plan also stresses that the needs of the users, i.e. the citizens, always should be the starting-point of e-service development. However, there are groups of citizens, even in the mature information society of Sweden, who are excluded from having access to computers and the Internet and do not have the competence to use them. They have difficulties or do not feel comfortable with this way of handling public services - the digital divide dilemma. Therefore there are methodological as well as democratic challenges when identifying the needs of the complex diversity of different citizen groups who require different types of services from the municipality. The final part of the paper addresses the issue of a tentative framework for identifying the needs of the public e-services to support decision-making and service improvement for the planning of municipal e-governance aiming at sustainable planning for the local municipalities’ future e-government.

The clinical effectiveness of individual behaviour change interventions to reduce risky sexual behaviour after a negative human immunodeficiency virus test in men who have sex with men: systematic and realist reviews and intervention development

Background: Men who have sex with men (MSM) experience significant inequalities in health and well-being. They are the group in the UK at the highest risk of acquiring a human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection. Guidance relating to both HIV infection prevention, in general, and individual-level behaviour change interventions, in particular, is very limited. Objectives: To conduct an evidence synthesis of the clinical effectiveness of behaviour change interventions to reduce risky sexual behaviour among MSM after a negative HIV infection test. To identify effective components within interventions in reducing HIV risk-related behaviours and develop a candidate intervention. To host expert events addressing the implementation and optimisation of a candidate intervention. Data sources: All major electronic databases (British Education Index, BioMed Central, Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature, EMBASE, Educational Resource Index and Abstracts, Health and Medical Complete, MEDLINE, PsycARTICLES, PsycINFO, PubMed and Social Science Citation Index) were searched between January 2000 and December 2014. Review methods: A systematic review of the clinical effectiveness of individual behaviour change interventions was conducted. Interventions were examined using the behaviour change technique (BCT) taxonomy, theory coding assessment, mode of delivery and proximity to HIV infection testing. Data were summarised in narrative review and, when appropriate, meta-analysis was carried out. Supplemental analyses for the development of the candidate intervention focused on post hoc realist review method, the assessment of the sequential delivery and content of intervention components, and the social and historical context of primary studies. Expert panels reviewed the candidate intervention for issues of implementation and optimisation. Results: Overall, trials included in this review (n = 10) demonstrated that individual-level behaviour change interventions are effective in reducing key HIV infection risk-related behaviours. However, there was considerable clinical and methodological heterogeneity among the trials. Exploratory meta-analysis showed a statistically significant reduction in behaviours associated with high risk of HIV transmission (risk ratio 0.75, 95% confidence interval 0.62 to 0.91). Additional stratified analyses suggested that effectiveness may be enhanced through face-to-face contact immediately after testing, and that theory-based content and BCTs drawn from ‘goals and planning’ and ‘identity’ groups are important. All evidence collated in the review was synthesised to develop a candidate intervention. Experts highlighted overall acceptability of the intervention and outlined key ways that the candidate intervention could be optimised to enhance UK implementation. Limitations: There was a limited number of primary studies. All were from outside the UK and were subject to considerable clinical, methodological and statistical heterogeneity. The findings of the meta-analysis must therefore be treated with caution. The lack of detailed intervention manuals limited the assessment of intervention content, delivery and fidelity. Conclusions: Evidence regarding the effectiveness of behaviour change interventions suggests that they are effective in changing behaviour associated with HIV transmission. Exploratory stratified meta-analyses suggested that interventions should be delivered face to face and immediately after testing. There are uncertainties around the generalisability of these findings to the UK setting. However, UK experts found the intervention acceptable and provided ways of optimising the candidate intervention. Future work: There is a need for well-designed, UK-based trials of individual behaviour change interventions that clearly articulate intervention content and demonstrate intervention fidelity

Eurolanguages-2012: Innovations and Development

Збірник наукових студентських робіт призначено для широкого кола читачів, які цікавляться проблемами вивчення іноземних мов та перекладу в Україні

Does Trade Facilitation Matter in Bilateral Trade ?

This paper estimates an augmented gravity model incorporating different aspects of Trade Facilitation in develop and developing countries. Trade Facilitation is defined as measures that aim at making international trade easier by eliminating administrative delays, simplifying commercial procedures, increasing transparency, security and the place of new technologies in trade. This paper provides new theoretical and empirical enhancements. On the one hand, the model is based on theoretical foundations related to monopolistic competition and border effects. The orginality of this paper is that Trade Facilitation facets are included in the model. On the other hand, the empirical achievement of the paper is that it uses different databases allowing us to take into account many features of Trade Facilitation. I use several databases coming from different sources : Doing business (World Bank) and Institutional Profiles (CEPII). My main findings show that transaction time for imports and number of documents for exports have a negative impact on trade. Our sample is split into sub-samples in order to take into account the impact of development level. It turns out that Trade Facilitation aspects have not the same impact on developed and developing countries. Finally, we conclude that some perishable (food and beverages), seasonal (wearing apparels) and high-value added products are more sensitive to import time than other products. Hard industries are rather sensitive to export documents.Trade facilitation, gravity models, border effects.

Compilation of Reports from the Conference on Trafficking of Human Beings and Migration: A human rights approach

This document is part of a digital collection provided by the Martin P. Catherwood Library, ILR School, Cornell University, pertaining to the effects of globalization on the workplace worldwide. Special emphasis is placed on labor rights, working conditions, labor market changes, and union organizing.ASI_2005_HT_Portugal_Compilation_of_Reports.pdf: 184 downloads, before Oct. 1, 2020