LPP3 mediates self-generation of chemotactic LPA gradients by melanoma cells

Melanoma cells steer out of tumours using self-generated lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) gradients. The cells break down LPA, which is present at high levels around the tumours, creating a dynamic gradient that is low in the tumour and high outside. They then also migrate up this gradient, creating a complex and evolving outward chemotactic stimulus. Here we introduce a new assay for self-generated chemotaxis, and show that raising LPA levels causes a delay in migration rather than loss of chemotactic efficiency. Knockdown of the lipid phosphatase LPP3 - but not its homologues LPP1 or LPP2 - diminishes the cell's ability to break down LPA. This is specific for chemotactically active LPAs, such as the 18:1 and 20:4 species. Inhibition of autotaxin-mediated LPA production does not diminish outward chemotaxis, but loss of LPP3-mediated LPA breakdown blocks it. Similarly, in both 2D and 3D invasion assays, knockdown of LPP3 diminishes melanoma cells' ability to invade. Our results demonstrate that LPP3 is the key enzyme in melanoma cells' breakdown of LPA, and confirm the importance of attractant breakdown in LPA-mediated cell steering

Extracellular signalling modulates Scar/WAVE complex activity through Abi phosphorylation

The lamellipodia and pseudopodia of migrating cells are produced and maintained by the Scar/WAVE complex. Thus, actin-based cell migration is largely controlled through regulation of Scar/WAVE. Here, we report that the Abi subunit—but not Scar—is phosphorylated in response to extracellular signalling in Dictyostelium cells. Like Scar, Abi is phosphorylated after the complex has been activated, implying that Abi phosphorylation modulates pseudopodia, rather than causing new ones to be made. Consistent with this, Scar complex mutants that cannot bind Rac are also not phosphorylated. Several environmental cues also affect Abi phosphorylation—cell-substrate adhesion promotes it and increased extracellular osmolarity diminishes it. Both unphosphorylatable and phosphomimetic Abi efficiently rescue the chemotaxis of Abi KO cells and pseudopodia formation, confirming that Abi phosphorylation is not required for activation or inactivation of the Scar/WAVE complex. However, pseudopodia and Scar patches in the cells with unphosphorylatable Abi protrude for longer, altering pseudopod dynamics and cell speed. Dictyostelium, in which Scar and Abi are both unphosphorylatable, can still form pseudopods, but migrate substantially faster. We conclude that extracellular signals and environmental responses modulate cell migration by tuning the behaviour of the Scar/WAVE complex after it has been activated

Cell–substrate adhesion drives Scar/WAVE activation and phosphorylation by a Ste20-family kinase, which controls pseudopod lifetime

The Scar/WAVE complex is the principal catalyst of pseudopod and lamellipod formation. Here we show that Scar/WAVE’s proline-rich domain is polyphosphorylated after the complex is activated. Blocking Scar/WAVE activation stops phosphorylation in both Dictyostelium and mammalian cells, implying that phosphorylation modulates pseudopods after they have been formed, rather than controlling whether they are initiated. Unexpectedly, phosphorylation is not promoted by chemotactic signaling but is greatly stimulated by cell:substrate adhesion and diminished when cells deadhere. Phosphorylation-deficient or phosphomimetic Scar/WAVE mutants are both normally functional and rescue the phenotype of knockout cells, demonstrating that phosphorylation is dispensable for activation and actin regulation. However, pseudopods and patches of phosphorylation-deficient Scar/WAVE last substantially longer in mutants, altering the dynamics and size of pseudopods and lamellipods and thus changing migration speed. Scar/WAVE phosphorylation does not require ERK2 in Dictyostelium or mammalian cells. However, the MAPKKK homologue SepA contributes substantially—sepA mutants have less steady-state phosphorylation, which does not increase in response to adhesion. The mutants also behave similarly to cells expressing phosphorylation-deficient Scar, with longer-lived pseudopods and patches of Scar recruitment. We conclude that pseudopod engagement with substratum is more important than extracellular signals at regulating Scar/WAVE’s activity and that phosphorylation acts as a pseudopod timer by promoting Scar/WAVE turnover

Competition between chemoattractants causes unexpected complexity and can explain negative chemotaxis

Negative chemotaxis, where eukaryotic cells migrate away from repellents, is important throughout biology, for example, in nervous system patterning and resolution of inflammation. However, the mechanisms by which molecules repel migrating cells are unknown. Here, we use predictive modeling and experiments with Dictyostelium cells to show that competition between different ligands that bind to the same receptor leads to effective chemorepulsion. 8-CPT-cAMP, widely described as a simple chemorepellent, is inactive on its own and only repels cells when it acts in combination with the attractant cAMP. If cells degrade either competing ligand, the pattern of migration becomes more complex; cells may be repelled in one part of a gradient but attracted elsewhere, leading to populations moving in different directions in the same assay or converging in an arbitrary place. More counterintuitively still, two chemicals that normally attract cells can become repellent when combined. Computational models of chemotaxis are now accurate enough to predict phenomena that have not been anticipated by experiments. We have used them to identify new mechanisms that drive reverse chemotaxis, which we have confirmed through experiments with real cells. These findings are important whenever multiple ligands compete for the same receptors

The architecture of cancellous bone in the hindlimb of moa (Aves: Dinornithiformes), with implications for stance and gait

The extinct, flightless moa of New Zealand included some of the largest birds to have existed and possessed many distinguishing pelvic and hindlimb osteological features. These features may have influenced stance and gait in moa compared with extant birds. One means of assessing locomotor biomechanics, particularly for extinct species, is quantitative analysis of the architecture of cancellous bone, since this architecture is adapted to suit its mechanical environment with high sensitivity. This study investigated the three-dimensional architecture of cancellous bone in the femur, tibiotarsus and fibula of three moa species: Dinornis robustus, Pachyornis elephantopus and Megalapteryx didinus. Using computed tomographic X-ray scanning and previously developed fabric analysis techniques, the spatial variation in cancellous bone fabric patterns in moa was found to be largely comparable with that previously reported for extant birds, particularly large species. Moa hence likely used postures and kinematics similar to those employed by large extant bird species, but this interpretation is tentative on account of relatively small sample sizes. A point of major difference between moa and extant birds concerns the diaphyses; cancellous bone invades the medullary cavity in both groups, but the invasion is far more extensive in moa. Combined with previous assessments of cortical geometry, this further paints a picture of at least some moa species possessing very robust limb bones, for which a convincing explanation remains to be determine

WASP family proteins and formins compete in pseudopod- and bleb-based migration

Actin pseudopods induced by SCAR/WAVE drive normal migration and chemotaxis in eukaryotic cells. Cells can also migrate using blebs, in which the edge is driven forward by hydrostatic pressure instead of actin. In Dictyostelium discoideum, loss of SCAR is compensated by WASP moving to the leading edge to generate morphologically normal pseudopods. Here we use an inducible double knockout to show that cells lacking both SCAR and WASP are unable to grow, make pseudopods or, unexpectedly, migrate using blebs. Remarkably, amounts and dynamics of actin polymerization are normal. Pseudopods are replaced in double SCAR/WASP mutants by aberrant filopods, induced by the formin dDia2. Further disruption of the gene for dDia2 restores cells’ ability to initiate blebs and thus migrate, though pseudopods are still lost. Triple knockout cells still contain near-normal F-actin levels. This work shows that SCAR, WASP, and dDia2 compete for actin. Loss of SCAR and WASP causes excessive dDia2 activity, maintaining F-actin levels but blocking pseudopod and bleb formation and migration

Multi-site genetic analysis of diffusion images and voxelwise heritability analysis : a pilot project of the ENIGMA–DTI working group

The ENIGMA (Enhancing NeuroImaging Genetics through Meta-Analysis) Consortium was set up to analyze brain measures and genotypes from multiple sites across the world to improve the power to detect genetic variants that influence the brain. Diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) yields quantitative measures sensitive to brain development and degeneration, and some common genetic variants may be associated with white matter integrity or connectivity. DTI measures, such as the fractional anisotropy (FA) of water diffusion, may be useful for identifying genetic variants that influence brain microstructure. However, genome-wide association studies (GWAS) require large populations to obtain sufficient power to detect and replicate significant effects, motivating a multi-site consortium effort. As part of an ENIGMA–DTI working group, we analyzed high-resolution FA images from multiple imaging sites across North America, Australia, and Europe, to address the challenge of harmonizing imaging data collected at multiple sites. Four hundred images of healthy adults aged 18–85 from four sites were used to create a template and corresponding skeletonized FA image as a common reference space. Using twin and pedigree samples of different ethnicities, we used our common template to evaluate the heritability of tract-derived FA measures. We show that our template is reliable for integrating multiple datasets by combining results through meta-analysis and unifying the data through exploratory mega-analyses. Our results may help prioritize regions of the FA map that are consistently influenced by additive genetic factors for future genetic discovery studies. Protocols and templates are publicly available at (http://enigma.loni.ucla.edu/ongoing/dti-working-group/)

Bio-informatics analysis of a gene co-expression module in adipose tissue containing the diet-responsive gene Nnat

Background: Obesity causes insulin resistance in target tissues - skeletal muscle, adipose tissue, liver and the brain. Insulin resistance predisposes to type-2 diabetes (T2D) and cardiovascular disease (CVD). Adipose tissue inflammation is an essential characteristic of obesity and insulin resistance. Neuronatin (Nnat) expression has been found to be altered in a number of conditions related to inflammatory or metabolic disturbance, but its physiological roles and regulatory mechanisms in adipose tissue, brain, pancreatic islets and other tissues are not understood. Results: We identified transcription factor binding sites (TFBS) conserved in the Nnat promoter, and transcription factors (TF) abundantly expressed in adipose tissue. These include transcription factors concerned with the control of: adipogenesis (Ppar gamma, Klf15, Irf1, Creb1, Egr2, Gata3); lipogenesis (Mlxipl, Srebp1c); inflammation (Jun, Stat3); insulin signalling and diabetes susceptibility (Foxo1, Tcf7l2). We also identified NeuroD1 the only documented TF that controls Nnat expression. We identified KEGG pathways significantly associated with Nnat expression, including positive correlations with inflammation and negative correlations with metabolic pathways (most prominently oxidative phosphorylation, glycolysis and gluconeogenesis, pyruvate metabolism) and protein turnover. 27 genes, including; Gstt1 and Sod3, concerned with oxidative stress; Sncg and Cxcl9 concerned with inflammation; Ebf1, Lgals12 and Fzd4 involved in adipogenesis; whose expression co-varies with Nnat were identified, and conserved transcription factor binding sites identified on their promoters. Functional networks relating to each of these genes were identified. Conclusions: Our analysis shows that Nnat is an acute diet-responsive gene in white adipose tissue and hypothalamus; it may play an important role in metabolism, adipogenesis, and resolution of oxidative stress and inflammation in response to dietary exces

Fam49/CYRI interacts with Rac1 and locally suppresses protrusions

Actin-based protrusions are reinforced through positive feedback, but it is unclear what restricts their size, or limits positive signals when they retract or split. We identify an evolutionarily conserved regulator of actin-based protrusion: CYRI (CYFIP-related Rac interactor) also known as Fam49 (family of unknown function 49). CYRI binds activated Rac1 via a domain of unknown function (DUF1394) shared with CYFIP, defining DUF1394 as a Rac1-binding module. CYRI-depleted cells have broad lamellipodia enriched in Scar/WAVE, but reduced protrusion–retraction dynamics. Pseudopods induced by optogenetic Rac1 activation in CYRI-depleted cells are larger and longer lived. Conversely, CYRI overexpression suppresses recruitment of active Scar/WAVE to the cell edge, resulting in short-lived, unproductive protrusions. CYRI thus focuses protrusion signals and regulates pseudopod complexity by inhibiting Scar/WAVE-induced actin polymerization. It thus behaves like a ‘local inhibitor’ as predicted in widely accepted mathematical models, but not previously identified in cells. CYRI therefore regulates chemotaxis, cell migration and epithelial polarization by controlling the polarity and plasticity of protrusions

Stratospheric aerosol - Observations, processes, and impact on climate

Interest in stratospheric aerosol and its role in climate have increased over the last decade due to the observed increase in stratospheric aerosol since 2000 and the potential for changes in the sulfur cycle induced by climate change. This review provides an overview about the advances in stratospheric aerosol research since the last comprehensive assessment of stratospheric aerosol was published in 2006. A crucial development since 2006 is the substantial improvement in the agreement between in situ and space-based inferences of stratospheric aerosol properties during volcanically quiescent periods. Furthermore, new measurement systems and techniques, both in situ and space based, have been developed for measuring physical aerosol properties with greater accuracy and for characterizing aerosol composition. However, these changes induce challenges to constructing a long-term stratospheric aerosol climatology. Currently, changes in stratospheric aerosol levels less than 20% cannot be confidently quantified. The volcanic signals tend to mask any nonvolcanically driven change, making them difficult to understand. While the role of carbonyl sulfide as a substantial and relatively constant source of stratospheric sulfur has been confirmed by new observations and model simulations, large uncertainties remain with respect to the contribution from anthropogenic sulfur dioxide emissions. New evidence has been provided that stratospheric aerosol can also contain small amounts of nonsulfate matter such as black carbon and organics. Chemistry-climate models have substantially increased in quantity and sophistication. In many models the implementation of stratospheric aerosol processes is coupled to radiation and/or stratospheric chemistry modules to account for relevant feedback processes