Leksikografiese datakassies. Deel 3. Aspekte van datakassies in tweetalige woordeboek en 'n perspektief op huidige en toekomstige data-kassies

This article, the third in a series of three on lexicographic data boxes, firstly focuses ona number of aspects of data boxes in bilingual dictionaries with the emphasis on different approaches in bilingual dictionaries with an African language as one of the members of the treated language pair. It is not possible to provide a comprehensive discussion within the limitations of an article. Then the discussion proceeds by looking at some new ways of using data boxes in online dictionaries. It is shown that the possibilities of the new medium allow lexicographers to employ data boxes in both traditional and non-traditional ways. It is argued that data boxes are expected to fulfil a variety of purposes ranging from navigational information and the provision of salient information to giving access to relevant data in dictionary-internal and dictionary-external sources. Lexicographers of online dictionaries have introduced new ways of using data boxes that have not yet been fully discussed in metalexicographic literature. This article gives an identification and a brief discussion of some of these innovative uses of data boxes. It stresses the potential that the online environment offers lexicography. Practical and theoretical lexicographers need to be aware of these possibilities and challenges. By embarking on a more comprehensive use of data boxes dic-tionaries can become even better containers of knowledge and can serve their users in an optimal way.Hierdie artikel, die derde in 'n reeks van drie oor leksikografiese datakassies, fokus eerstens op aspekte van datakassies in tweetalige woordeboeke met die klem op verskillende benaderings in tweetalige woordeboeke met 'n Afrikataal as een van die lede van die behandelde taalpaar. Daarna gaan die bespreking voort deur te kyk na 'n paar nuwe maniere om datakassies in aanlyn woordeboeke te gebruik. Daar word aangetoon dat die moontlikhede wat die nuwe medium bied, leksikograwe in staat stel om datakassies op sowel tradisionele as nie-tradisionele maniere te gebruik. Daar word aangevoer dat die datakassies gebruik kan word om 'n verskeidenheid doel-eindes te bereik, wat wissel van navigasie-inligting en die verskaffing van belangrike inligting tot toegang tot relevante data in woordeboek-interne en woordeboek-eksterne bronne. Leksikograwe van aanlyn woordeboeke het nuwe maniere bekendgestel om datakassies te gebruik wat nog nie volledig in die metaleksikografiese literatuur bespreek is nie. Hierdie artikel gee 'n identifisering en 'n kort bespreking van sommige van hierdie innoverende gebruike van datakassies. Dit beklem-toon die potensiaal wat die aanlynomgewing aan die leksikografie bied. Leksikograwe moet bewus wees van hierdie moontlikhede en uitdagings. Deur met 'n meer omvattende gebruik van datakas-sies te begin, kan woordeboeke selfs beter kennishouers word en hul gebruikers op 'n optimale manier dien.This is the third in a series of three articles dealing with various aspects of lexicographic data boxes.The South African Centre for Digital Language Resources (SADiLaR)http://lexikos.journals.ac.zaam2022African Language

Leksikografiese datakassies : Deel 1 : Leksikografiese datakassies as tekskonstituente in woordeboeke

This article, the first in a series of three on lexicographic data boxes, focuses primarily on the occurrence of lexicographic data boxes as text constituents in dictionaries. Following a brief look at what data boxes are, the focus shifts to the different venues where these boxes can be accommodated within the central list of a dictionary. Boxes containing items and/or item texts can be positioned within articles, or article-externally as phased-in inner texts within a partial article stretch of a dictionary. Data boxes are used to convey data that need to be highlighted and are therefore often formally marked (a coloured background or within a frame) and are put in an arti-cle slot that has a position of salience. As dictionary entries they can participate in procedures of both lemmatic and non-lemmatic addressing. It is shown that a box should preferably be inserted close to its address. In articles of polysemous words, the user should unambiguously know for which sense(s) the box is relevant. As phased-in inner texts data boxes can be addressed at a lemma within the same partial article stretch but also, in the case of synopsis boxes, at lemmata in other article stretches. This demands procedures of remote addressing.The National Research Foundation of South Africahttp://lexikos.journals.ac.zaam2022African Language

Leksikografiese datakassies. Deel 2. Tipes datakassies en hulle inhoud, met spesifieke verwysing na woordeboeke vir Engels en die Afrikatale

This article, the second in a series of three on lexicographic data boxes, focuses pri-marily on the types and contents of data boxes with particular reference to dictionaries for English and African languages. It will be proposed that data boxes in paper and electronic dictionaries can be divided into three categories and that a hierarchy between these types of boxes can be distin-guished, i.e. (a) a bottom tier — data boxes used as mere alternatives to other lexicographic ways of presentation such as the bringing together of related items and/or to make entries visually more attractive, (b) a middle tier — addressing more salient features e.g. range of application, contrast, register, restrictions, etc. and (c) a top tier — vital salient information, e.g. warnings, taboos and even illegal words. A distinction is made between data boxes which are universal in nature, i.e. applicable to any language, data boxes pertaining to a language family and data boxes applicable to a specific language.Hierdie artikel, die tweede in 'n reeks van drie oor leksikografiese datakassies, fokus hoofsaaklik op die tipes datakassies en hulle inhoud, met spesifieke verwysing na woordeboeke vir Engels en die Afrikatale. Daar sal voorgestel word dat datakassies in papier- en elektroniese woor-deboeke in drie kategorieë verdeel kan word en dat 'n hiërargie tussen hierdie tipes kassies onder-skei kan word, d.w.s. (a) 'n onderste vlak — datakassies wat slegs as alternatiewe vir ander leksiko-grafiese aanbiedingsmetodes gebruik word soos die bymekaarbring van verwante items en/of om inskrywings visueel aantrekliker te maak; (b) 'n middelvlak — om meer opvallende kenmerke aan te spreek, bv. die reikwydte, kontras, register, beperkings, ens. en (c) 'n hoogste vlak — essensiële inligting, bv. waarskuwings, taboes en selfs onwettige woorde. Daar word onderskei tussen data-kassies wat universeel van aard is, dit wil sê van toepassing op enige taal, datakassies wat ter sake is vir 'n taalfamilie en datakassies wat van toepassing is op 'n spesifieke taal.This is the second in a series of three articles dealing with various aspects of lexicographic data boxes.The South African Centre for Digital Language Resources (SADiLaR).http://lexikos.journals.ac.zaam2022African Language

Using Electronic Technology to Improve Clinical Care -- Results from a Before-after Cluster Trial to Evaluate Assessment and Classification of Sick Children According to Integrated Management of Childhood Illness (IMCI) Protocol in Tanzania.

Poor adherence to the Integrated Management of Childhood Illness (IMCI) protocol reduces the potential impact on under-five morbidity and mortality. Electronic technology could improve adherence; however there are few studies demonstrating the benefits of such technology in a resource-poor settings. This study estimates the impact of electronic technology on adherence to the IMCI protocols as compared to the current paper-based protocols in Tanzania. In four districts in Tanzania, 18 clinics were randomly selected for inclusion. At each site, observers documented critical parts of the clinical assessment of children aged 2 months to 5 years. The first set of observations occurred during examination of children using paper-based IMCI (pIMCI) and the next set of observations occurred during examination using the electronic IMCI (eIMCI). Children were re-examined by an IMCI expert and the diagnoses were compared. A total of 1221 children (671 paper, 550 electronic) were observed. For all ten critical IMCI items included in both systems, adherence to the protocol was greater for eIMCI than for pIMCI. The proportion assessed under pIMCI ranged from 61% to 98% compared to 92% to 100% under eIMCI (p < 0.05 for each of the ten assessment items). Use of electronic systems improved the completeness of assessment of children with acute illness in Tanzania. With the before-after nature of the design, potential for temporal confounding is the primary limitation. However, the data collection for both phases occurred over a short period (one month) and so temporal confounding was expected to be minimal. The results suggest that the use of electronic IMCI protocols can improve the completeness and consistency of clinical assessments and future studies will examine the long-term health and health systems impact of eIMCI

Antimicrobial resistance among migrants in Europe: a systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND: Rates of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) are rising globally and there is concern that increased migration is contributing to the burden of antibiotic resistance in Europe. However, the effect of migration on the burden of AMR in Europe has not yet been comprehensively examined. Therefore, we did a systematic review and meta-analysis to identify and synthesise data for AMR carriage or infection in migrants to Europe to examine differences in patterns of AMR across migrant groups and in different settings. METHODS: For this systematic review and meta-analysis, we searched MEDLINE, Embase, PubMed, and Scopus with no language restrictions from Jan 1, 2000, to Jan 18, 2017, for primary data from observational studies reporting antibacterial resistance in common bacterial pathogens among migrants to 21 European Union-15 and European Economic Area countries. To be eligible for inclusion, studies had to report data on carriage or infection with laboratory-confirmed antibiotic-resistant organisms in migrant populations. We extracted data from eligible studies and assessed quality using piloted, standardised forms. We did not examine drug resistance in tuberculosis and excluded articles solely reporting on this parameter. We also excluded articles in which migrant status was determined by ethnicity, country of birth of participants' parents, or was not defined, and articles in which data were not disaggregated by migrant status. Outcomes were carriage of or infection with antibiotic-resistant organisms. We used random-effects models to calculate the pooled prevalence of each outcome. The study protocol is registered with PROSPERO, number CRD42016043681. FINDINGS: We identified 2274 articles, of which 23 observational studies reporting on antibiotic resistance in 2319 migrants were included. The pooled prevalence of any AMR carriage or AMR infection in migrants was 25·4% (95% CI 19·1-31·8; I2 =98%), including meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (7·8%, 4·8-10·7; I2 =92%) and antibiotic-resistant Gram-negative bacteria (27·2%, 17·6-36·8; I2 =94%). The pooled prevalence of any AMR carriage or infection was higher in refugees and asylum seekers (33·0%, 18·3-47·6; I2 =98%) than in other migrant groups (6·6%, 1·8-11·3; I2 =92%). The pooled prevalence of antibiotic-resistant organisms was slightly higher in high-migrant community settings (33·1%, 11·1-55·1; I2 =96%) than in migrants in hospitals (24·3%, 16·1-32·6; I2 =98%). We did not find evidence of high rates of transmission of AMR from migrant to host populations. INTERPRETATION: Migrants are exposed to conditions favouring the emergence of drug resistance during transit and in host countries in Europe. Increased antibiotic resistance among refugees and asylum seekers and in high-migrant community settings (such as refugee camps and detention facilities) highlights the need for improved living conditions, access to health care, and initiatives to facilitate detection of and appropriate high-quality treatment for antibiotic-resistant infections during transit and in host countries. Protocols for the prevention and control of infection and for antibiotic surveillance need to be integrated in all aspects of health care, which should be accessible for all migrant groups, and should target determinants of AMR before, during, and after migration. FUNDING: UK National Institute for Health Research Imperial Biomedical Research Centre, Imperial College Healthcare Charity, the Wellcome Trust, and UK National Institute for Health Research Health Protection Research Unit in Healthcare-associated Infections and Antimictobial Resistance at Imperial College London

Global patient outcomes after elective surgery: prospective cohort study in 27 low-, middle- and high-income countries.

BACKGROUND: As global initiatives increase patient access to surgical treatments, there remains a need to understand the adverse effects of surgery and define appropriate levels of perioperative care. METHODS: We designed a prospective international 7-day cohort study of outcomes following elective adult inpatient surgery in 27 countries. The primary outcome was in-hospital complications. Secondary outcomes were death following a complication (failure to rescue) and death in hospital. Process measures were admission to critical care immediately after surgery or to treat a complication and duration of hospital stay. A single definition of critical care was used for all countries. RESULTS: A total of 474 hospitals in 19 high-, 7 middle- and 1 low-income country were included in the primary analysis. Data included 44 814 patients with a median hospital stay of 4 (range 2-7) days. A total of 7508 patients (16.8%) developed one or more postoperative complication and 207 died (0.5%). The overall mortality among patients who developed complications was 2.8%. Mortality following complications ranged from 2.4% for pulmonary embolism to 43.9% for cardiac arrest. A total of 4360 (9.7%) patients were admitted to a critical care unit as routine immediately after surgery, of whom 2198 (50.4%) developed a complication, with 105 (2.4%) deaths. A total of 1233 patients (16.4%) were admitted to a critical care unit to treat complications, with 119 (9.7%) deaths. Despite lower baseline risk, outcomes were similar in low- and middle-income compared with high-income countries. CONCLUSIONS: Poor patient outcomes are common after inpatient surgery. Global initiatives to increase access to surgical treatments should also address the need for safe perioperative care. STUDY REGISTRATION: ISRCTN5181700

Surgical site infection after gastrointestinal surgery in high-income, middle-income, and low-income countries: a prospective, international, multicentre cohort study

Background: Surgical site infection (SSI) is one of the most common infections associated with health care, but its importance as a global health priority is not fully understood. We quantified the burden of SSI after gastrointestinal surgery in countries in all parts of the world. Methods: This international, prospective, multicentre cohort study included consecutive patients undergoing elective or emergency gastrointestinal resection within 2-week time periods at any health-care facility in any country. Countries with participating centres were stratified into high-income, middle-income, and low-income groups according to the UN's Human Development Index (HDI). Data variables from the GlobalSurg 1 study and other studies that have been found to affect the likelihood of SSI were entered into risk adjustment models. The primary outcome measure was the 30-day SSI incidence (defined by US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention criteria for superficial and deep incisional SSI). Relationships with explanatory variables were examined using Bayesian multilevel logistic regression models. This trial is registered with ClinicalTrials.gov, number NCT02662231. Findings: Between Jan 4, 2016, and July 31, 2016, 13 265 records were submitted for analysis. 12 539 patients from 343 hospitals in 66 countries were included. 7339 (58·5%) patient were from high-HDI countries (193 hospitals in 30 countries), 3918 (31·2%) patients were from middle-HDI countries (82 hospitals in 18 countries), and 1282 (10·2%) patients were from low-HDI countries (68 hospitals in 18 countries). In total, 1538 (12·3%) patients had SSI within 30 days of surgery. The incidence of SSI varied between countries with high (691 [9·4%] of 7339 patients), middle (549 [14·0%] of 3918 patients), and low (298 [23·2%] of 1282) HDI (p < 0·001). The highest SSI incidence in each HDI group was after dirty surgery (102 [17·8%] of 574 patients in high-HDI countries; 74 [31·4%] of 236 patients in middle-HDI countries; 72 [39·8%] of 181 patients in low-HDI countries). Following risk factor adjustment, patients in low-HDI countries were at greatest risk of SSI (adjusted odds ratio 1·60, 95% credible interval 1·05–2·37; p=0·030). 132 (21·6%) of 610 patients with an SSI and a microbiology culture result had an infection that was resistant to the prophylactic antibiotic used. Resistant infections were detected in 49 (16·6%) of 295 patients in high-HDI countries, in 37 (19·8%) of 187 patients in middle-HDI countries, and in 46 (35·9%) of 128 patients in low-HDI countries (p < 0·001). Interpretation: Countries with a low HDI carry a disproportionately greater burden of SSI than countries with a middle or high HDI and might have higher rates of antibiotic resistance. In view of WHO recommendations on SSI prevention that highlight the absence of high-quality interventional research, urgent, pragmatic, randomised trials based in LMICs are needed to assess measures aiming to reduce this preventable complication

Surrogate equivalence in bilingual dictionaries with specific reference to zero equivalence in dictionaries for African languages

Tweetalige woordeboeke word om die onttrekking van verskillende tipes inligting geraadpleeg. Die datatipe waaraan die gemiddelde en kundige gebruiker van tweetalige woordeboeke die grootste behoefte het en wat daarom die algemeenste teiken van woordeboekraadpleging is, is die vertaalekwivalente, dit is die doeltaalvorme wat vir 'n bepaalde brontaalvorm verskaf word. Die leksikograaf moet vir drie hooftipes ekwivalentverhoudinge voorsiening maak, te wete absolute ekwivalensie, gedeeltelike ekwivalensie en zero-ekwivalensie. Dit is veral gevalle van zeroekwivalensie wat leksikograwe voor die uitdaging stel om op verskillende maniere daarvoor voorsiening te maak dat die gebruikers 'n optimale onttrekking van inligting aan woordeboekartikels behaal. In hierdie artikel word gefokus op die aard en besondere omvang van zeroekwivalensie in die Afrikatale en word verskillende tipes surrogaatekwivalente en benaderingswyses onder die loep geneem. 'n Onderskeid word ook gemaak tussen verskillende vlakke van surrogaatekwivalensie. Die benadering is kontemplatief sowel as transformatief en die behoeftes van die teikengebruikers ten opsigte van teksresepsie en teksproduksie word vooropgestel.The focus in a general bilingual dictionary is on the item presenting translation equivalents for the words represented by the lemma signs. Three major types of equivalent relations prevail, i.e. full equivalence, partial equivalence and zero equivalence. These different relations of equivalence confront lexicographers with different challenges to ensure that the users will be able to achieve an optimal retrieval of information from a given dictionary article. Ideally, suitable translation equivalents in the target language would be available for each source language item. Instances where a suitable translation equivalent is not available occur in any given language pair to be treated as source and target. Adamska-Sałaciak (2006:99) goes as far as to state that "due to interlingual anisomorphism a bilingual dictionary is, strictly speaking, an impossibility" and that "all we can hope to produce are better or worse approximations". Lexicographers have an obligation towards their specific users to ensure a presentation and treatment of translation equivalents that will enable an unambiguous retrieval of information from the data on offer in the comment on semantics of a bilingual dictionary. The nature and extent of this treatment should be determined by the needs and reference skills of the intended target user group, the user situation and the lexicographic functions of the specific dictionary. There are frequent instances in any given language pair where a suitable translation equivalent is not available to be treated as source and target language in a bilingual dictionary. This is known as zero equivalence and can be regarded as the most complex type of equivalence to be dealt with in a bilingual dictionary. A linguistic gap can be identified when the speakers of both languages are familiar with a certain concept, but when one language does not have a word to refer to it, whereas the other language does have such a word. A referential gap can be postulated when a lexical item from language A has no translation equivalent in language B. This would be because the speakers of language B do not know the referent of the lexical item from language A. This article addresses the various ways in which lexicographers of different dictionaries deal with the lack of equivalence and the subsequent use of surrogate equivalents. There are a number of strategies that the lexicographer can use when dealing with instances of zero equivalence, e.g. the use of glosses, paraphrases, illustrations and even text boxes with lexicographic comments. This article suggests different types of surrogate equivalents based on user needs, and it will be done in accordance with the relevant dictionary functions, i.e. the cognitive function and the communicative functions of text reception, text production and translation. It will be indicated that lexicographic treatment of zero equivalence is a major factor in bilingual dictionaries bridging, for example, Afrikaans or English with African languages. In many cases a substantial part, even a large number of sequential lemmas in any given alphabetical stretch, comprise zero equivalence. Such instances, mostly in respect of cultural terms pose a great challenge to the lexicographer. They vary in nature and complexity and call for different and innovative ways of lexicographic treatment. In this article the focus will be on the nature and extent of zero equivalence in the African languages, and different types of surrogate equivalents form the basis of the discussion. A distinction will also be made between different levels of surrogate equivalence. The approach is contemplative as well as transformative, with the emphasis on the needs of target users in respect of text reception and text production. Acknowledging different degrees of complexity in the relation of surrogate equivalence leads to a tiered view of the concept. The first level in the hierarchy provides for linguistic gaps where a mere gloss or brief paraphrase of meaning will suffice. More complicated are the gaps where the surrogate equivalent also has to provide grammatical guidance. The top tier in the hierarchy provides for referential gaps where taboo, culture-specific or sensitive values have to be expressed. The lexicographer has to utilise available treatment options maximally and select the mostappropriate one(s) in each case

Antimicrobial resistance and mcr-1 gene in Escherichia coli isolated from poultry samples submitted to a bacteriology laboratory in South Africa

BACKGROUND AND AIM: Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) and recently mobilized colistin resistance (mcr-1) associated colistin resistance among Escherichia coli isolates have been attributed to the overuse of antimicrobials in livestock production. E. coli remains an important pathogen, often associated with mortality and low carcass weight in poultry medicine; therefore, the need to use antimicrobials is common. The study aimed to determine the AMR profile and presence of mcr-1 and mcr-2 genes in avian pathogenic E. coli from poultry samples tested at a bacteriology laboratory for routine diagnosis. This is a first step in understanding the effectiveness of mitigation strategies. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Fifty E. coli strains were assessed for resistance against ten antimicrobial drugs using broth microdilution. All isolates with a colistin minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of 2 µg/mL were analyzed for the presence of mcr-1 and mcr-2 genes by employing the polymerase chain reaction. For each isolate, the following farm information was obtained: farm location, type of farm, and on-farm use of colistin. RESULTS: Sixty-eight percent of the strains were resistant to at least one antimicrobial; 44% were multiple drug-resistant (MDR). Most E. coli isolates were resistant to doxycycline (44%), trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (38%), ampicillin (32%), and enrofloxacin (32%). None of the E. coli strains was resistant to colistin sulfate (MIC90 of 2 µg/mL). Only one E. coli isolate held the mcr-1 gene; none carried the mcr-2 gene. CONCLUSION: Resistance among E. coli isolates in this study was fairly high. Resistance to commonly used antimicrobials was observed, such as doxycycline, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, and enrofloxacin. Only a single E. coli strain carried the mcr-1 gene, suggesting that mcr-1 and mcr-2 genes are common among isolates in this study. The prevalence of AMR, however, suggests that farmers must implement standard biosecurity measures to reduce E. coli burden, and antimicrobial use to prolong the efficacy life span of some of these drugs.The South African Medical Research Council, the University of Pretoria, and the National Research Foundation, South Africa.http://www.veterinaryworld.orgpm2022Paraclinical SciencesProduction Animal StudiesVeterinary Tropical Disease