The Impact of the Fusarium Mycotoxin Deoxynivalenol on the Health and Performance of Broiler Chickens

The aim of the present experiment was to investigate the effects of feeding grains naturally contaminated with Fusarium mycotoxins on morphometric indices of jejunum and to follow the passage of deoxynivalenol (DON) through subsequent segments of the digestive tract of broilers. A total of 45 1-d-old broiler chickens (Ross 308 males) were randomly allotted to three dietary treatments (15 birds/treatment): (1) control diet; (2) diet contaminated with 1 mg DON/kg feed; (3) diet contaminated with 5 mg DON/kg feed for five weeks. None of the zootechnical traits (body weight, body weight gain, feed intake, and feed conversion) responded to increased DON levels in the diet. However, DON at both dietary levels (1 mg and 5 mg DON/kg feed) significantly altered the small intestinal morphology. In the jejunum, the villi were significantly (P < 0.01) shorter in both DON treated groups compared with the controls. Furthermore, the dietary inclusion of DON decreased (P < 0.05) the villus surface area in both DON treated groups. The absolute or relative organ weights (liver, heart, proventriculus, gizzard, small intestine, spleen, pancreas, colon, cecum, bursa of Fabricius and thymus) were not altered (P > 0.05) in broilers fed the diet containing DON compared with controls. DON and de-epoxy-DON (DOM-1) were analyzed in serum, bile, liver, feces and digesta from consecutive segments of the digestive tract (gizzard, cecum, and rectum). Concentrations of DON and its metabolite DOM-1 in serum, bile, and liver were lower than the detection limits of the applied liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) method. Only about 10 to 12% and 6% of the ingested DON was recovered in gizzard and feces, irrespective of the dietary DON-concentration. However, the DON recovery in the cecum as percentage of DON-intake varied between 18 to 22% and was not influenced by dietary DON-concentration. Interestingly, in the present trial, DOM-1 did not appear in the large intestine and in feces. The results indicate that deepoxydation in the present study hardly occurred in the distal segments of the digestive tract, assuming that the complete de-epoxydation occurs in the proximal small intestine where the majority of the parent toxin is absorbed. In conclusion, diets with DON contamination below levels that induce a negative impact on performance could alter small intestinal morphology in broilers. Additionally, the results confirm that the majority of the ingested DON quickly disappears through the gastrointestinal tract

Risks to human and animal health related to the presence of deoxynivalenol and its acetylated and modified forms in food and feed

Deoxynivalenol (DON) is a mycotoxin primarily produced by Fusarium fungi, occurring predominantly in cereal grains. Following the request of the European Commission, the CONTAM Panel assessed the risk to animal and human health related to DON, 3-acetyl-DON (3-Ac-DON), 15-acetyl-DON (15-Ac-DON) and DON-3-glucoside in food and feed. A total of 27,537, 13,892, 7,270 and 2,266 analytical data for DON, 3-Ac-DON, 15-Ac-DON and DON-3-glucoside, respectively, in food, feed and unprocessed grains collected from 2007 to 2014 were used. For human exposure, grains and grain-based products were main sources, whereas in farm and companion animals, cereal grains, cereal by-products and forage maize contributed most. DON is rapidly absorbed, distributed, and excreted. Since 3-Ac-DON and 15-Ac-DON are largely deacetylated and DON-3-glucoside cleaved in the intestines the same toxic effects as DON can be expected. The TDI of 1 μg/kg bw per day, that was established for DON based on reduced body weight gain in mice, was therefore used as a group-TDI for the sum of DON, 3-Ac-DON, 15-Ac-DON and DON-3-glucoside. In order to assess acute human health risk, epidemiological data from mycotoxicoses were assessed and a group-ARfD of 8 μg/kg bw per eating occasion was calculated. Estimates of acute dietary exposures were below this dose and did not raise a health concern in humans. The estimated mean chronic dietary exposure was above the group-TDI in infants, toddlers and other children, and at high exposure also in adolescents and adults, indicating a potential health concern. Based on estimated mean dietary concentrations in ruminants, poultry, rabbits, dogs and cats, most farmed fish species and horses, adverse effects are not expected. At the high dietary concentrations, there is a potential risk for chronic adverse effects in pigs and fish and for acute adverse effects in cats and farmed mink

Mycotoxicological evaluation of barley grain and its products

Celem badań była analiza zawartości trichotecenów oraz zearalenonu w ziarnie jęczmienia oraz jego produktach pochodzących z ekologicznych i konwencjonalnych systemów uprawy, z województwa kujawsko-pomorskiego. Materiał badawczy stanowiły 53 próbki: 31 z ekologicznego i 22 z konwencjonalnego systemu gospodarowania. Badany materiał pochodził z lat 2009-2011. Przy użyciu metody HPLC-MS/MS oznaczono osiem mikotoksyn: niwalenol (NIV), deoksyniwalenol (DON), 3-acetylodeoksyniwalenol (3ADON), monoacetoksyscirpenol (MAS), diacetoksyscirpenol (DAS), toksyny T-2, HT-2 oraz zearalenon (ZEN). Wszystkie oznaczenia powtórzono trzykrotnie. Próby przygotowano wykorzystując kolumienki Bond Elut® Mycotoxin (Varian) oraz wzorce wewnętrzne (IS) 13C- DON, 13C-T-2, 13C-HT-2, ZAN. W badanym ziarnie oraz produktach spożywczych dominowała toksyna HT-2 (30% próbek badanych) oraz NIV (28% próbek badanych). Natomiast w żadnej z próbek nie stwierdzono obecności 3ADON. Spośród ośmiu oznaczanych mikotoksyn w najwyższym stężeniu występował NIV. Jego maksymalną zawartość 85.6 ppb odnotowano dla surowca ekologicznego. Najwięcej mikotoksyn stwierdzono w ziarnie pochodzącym z konwencjonalnego systemu upraw. Dominowała tutaj toksyna HT-2, oznaczona aż w 80% próbek oraz toksyna T-2, której obecność stwierdzono w 70% próbek. W grupie tej odnotowano również najwyższe stężenia tych mikotoksyn, wynoszące odpowiednio 13.8 ppb (HT-2) i 23.8 ppb (T-2) oraz największe stężenie DON (65.1 ppb). ZEN był najczęściej oznaczaną mikotoksyną w produktach konwencjonalnych, gdzie wystąpił w 42% próbek. Zanieczyszczenie produktów ekologicznych i konwencjonalnych było porównywalne. Średnie stężenia oznaczonych mikotoksyn w produktach spożywczych były wielokrotnie niższe niż w przypadku surowców. W żadnej z badanych próbek zawartość mikotoksyn nie przekroczyła dopuszczalnych wartości (Rozporządzenie 1881/2006 WE).The aim of the study was to perform the analysis of trichothecenes and zearalenone content in barley grain and food commodities such as grits, flour and flakes, coming from organic and conventional farms. The analysed material included 53 samples, with 31 from organic and 22 from conventional farms. The food products had been purchased in local shops in kujawsko-pomorskie province. Raw materials also came from the same region. Each sample was analysed in 3 replicates. Eight mycotoxins were determined using HPLC-MS/MS method: nivalenol (NIV), deoxynivalenol (DON), 3- acetyldeoxynivalenol (3ADON), monoacetoxyscirpenol (MAS), diacetoxyscirpenol (DAS), T-2 and HT-2 toxins and zearalenone (ZEN). Sample preparation was made using Bond Elut® Mycotoxin columns (Varian) and internal standards (IS) 13C-DON, 13C-T-2, 13C-HT-2, ZAN. HT-2 toxin and NIV dominated in the analysed grains and food products (30% and 28% respectively), while 3ADON was not detected in a single sample. Among the 8 analysed mycotoxins it was NIV that dominated and its highest concentration was 85.6 ppb in the raw material from an organic farm. The highest number of mycotoxins was found in the grain from a conventional farm, with HT-2 and T-2 toxins prevailing (80% and 70% samples, respectively). Their concentration was also the highest in this group (13.8 ppb and 23.8 ppb, respectively). The third highest concentration turned out to be of DON (65.1 ppb). ZEN was most commonly present in food products coming from conventional farms - 42% samples. The contamination of organic and conventional products was comparable. Mean concentration of the analysed mycotoxins was much lower in food products than in raw material. None of the analysed products contained 3ADON or DAS. Moreover, neither DON was detected in any of the organic products nor MAS in the conventional ones. No tested sample exceeded the maximum acceptable levels of mycotoxins (Commission Regulation 1881/2006 EC)

The finite pore volume GAB adsorption isotherm model as a simple tool to estimate a diameter of cylindrical nanopores

The finite pore volume Guggenheim–Anderson–de Boer (fpv-GAB) adsorption isotherm model has been considered as a simple tool which not only enables us to analyze the shape of isotherms theoretically, but also provides information about pore diameter. The proposed methodology is based on the geometrical considerations and the division of the adsorption space into two parts: the monolayer and the multilayer space. The ratio of the volumes of these two spaces is unambiguously related to the pore diameter. This ratio can be simply determined from the N2 adsorption isotherm by its fitting with the use of fpv-GAB model. The volume ratio is equal to the ratio of the adsorption capacities in the monolayer and the multilayer—two of the best-fit parameters. The suggested approach has been verified using a series of isotherms simulated inside ideal carbon nanotubes. The adsorption data for some real adsorbents has also been used during tests. The studies performed have proven that diameters estimated with the use of the proposed method are comparable with the geometrical sizes or diameters published by others and based on the application of more sophisticated methods. For pores wider than 3 nm, the relative error does not exceed a few percent. The approach based on the fpv-GAB model reflects well the differences in pore sizes for the series of materials. Therefore, it can be treated as a convenient tool to compare various samples

Occurrence of fusarium toxins in spelt from ecological system of farming

Celem pracy była ocena mikotoksykologiczna pszenicy orkiszowej pochodzącej z różnych gospodarstw ekologicznych położonych na terenie województwa kujawsko-pomorskiego i warmińsko-mazurskiego oraz ekologicznych produktów orkiszowych, zakupionych w punktach handlowych na terenie miasta Bydgoszczy. Materiał do badań stanowiły 53 próbki: 15 – surowce (nieprzetworzone ziarno) 2009, 17 – surowce 2010, 10 – produkty 2009, 11 – produkty 2010. Wśród produktów znalazły się płatki, otręby, mąka, kasza, makaron i kawa. Mikotoksyny (T-2, HT-2, deoksyniwalenol – DON, niwalenol – NIV, 3-acetylodeoksyniwalenol – 3-ADON, monoacetoksyscirpenol – MAS, diacetoksyscirpenolu – DAS i zearalenon – ZEN) oznaczano metodą HPLC-MS/MS. W procesie przygotowania próbek wykorzystano technikę SPE oraz następujące wzorce wewnętrzne: 13C-DON, 13C-T-2, 13C-HT-2, ZAN. Oznaczenie mikotoksyn przeprowadzano w trzykrotnym powtórzeniu. Zanieczyszczenie badanych próbek wtórnymi metabolitami pleśni było nieznaczne. Spośród oznaczanych mikotoksyn w najwyższych stężeniach występował DON. Największy jego poziom zanotowano w ziarnie orkiszu ozimego (c = 139 ± 4 ppb), jednak stężenie to było prawie dziesięciokrotnie niższe niż maksymalny dopuszczalny poziom DON w zbożach nieprzetworzonych (Rozporządzenie Komisji (WE) Nr 6 1881/2006 z dnia 19 grudnia 2006). Pozostałe mikotoksyny zostały również wykryte, jednakże ich średnia zawartość zarówno w surowcach jak i produktach była niższa od granicy oznaczalności.The aim of this study was mycotoxicological evaluation of spelt wheat from different organic farms located in kujawskopomorskie and warmińsko-mazurskie and their products purchased in retail trade in the city of Bydgoszcz. Material for study consisted of 53 samples: 15 – raw material (unprocessed grain) from 2009, 17 – raw material from 2010, 10 – products 2009, 11 – products 2010. The spelt products consisted of flakes, bran, flour, groat, pasta and coffee. Mycotoxins (T-2 nad HT-2, deoxynivalenol – DON, niwalenol – NIV, 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol – 3-ADON, monoacetoxyscirpenol – MAS, diacetoxyscirpenol – DAS, and zearalenone – ZEN) were determined using the HPLC-MS/MS method. During sample preparation procedures the SPE technique was used and the following internal standards were applied: 13C-DON, 13C-T-2, 13CHT- 2, ZAN. Mycotoxin analysis was performed in triplicate. Contamination of samples with studied secondary metabolites of molds was negligible. Among determined mycotoxins DON occurred at the highest concentrations. Its maximum level was determined in winter spelt grains (c = 139 ± 4 ppb), but this concentration was almost ten times lower than the maximum acceptable level of DON in non-processed cereals (Commission Regulation (EC) No. 1881/2006 of 19 December 2006). The other mycotoxins were also detected, however their average content both in raw materials and products was lower than the limit of quantification

Occurrence and Risk Assessment of Mycotoxins through Polish Beer Consumption

Poland is one of Europe&#8217;s leading producers and exporters of beer. The study, herein, describes the measurement of ochratoxin A, deoxynivalenol, nivalenol, T-2 toxin, HT-2 toxin, diacetoxyscirpenol, and zearalenone levels in 69 Polish beers. Analytical methodologies based on high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS) and fluorescence detection were developed, validated, and used to perform the above determinations. The most prevalent mycotoxins were deoxynivalenol (96%), ochratoxin A (93%), and HT-2 toxin (74%), respectively. Three quarters of the samples contained at least three analytes. The mean ochratoxin A concentration was 0.057 (SD 0.065) ng/mL, and in four beer samples its level exceeded 0.2 ng/mL, a value postulated in the literature to be the maximum limit. Deoxynivalenol was found at a maximum level of 56.2 ng/mL, and its mean concentration was 17.1 (SD 9.0) ng/mL. An evaluation of the estimated daily intake (EDI) of mycotoxins from beer in different European populations was made using food-consumption data prepared by WHO. Based on the mean ochratoxin A concentration in beers, the EDI represented 0.8&#8722;1.1% of the tolerable daily intake (TDI), while in a worst-case scenario (maximum concentration) it reached 5.0&#8722;7.5% of TDI. For deoxynivalenol, the EDI was in the range of 4.1&#8722;6.0% of TDI, whereas, based on maximum values, it reached the level of 14&#8722;21% of TDI. There were no significant differences between &#8220;scenarios&#8221; in the HT-2 case (mean&#8212;5.0&#8722;7.5% of TDI; maximum&#8212;6.5&#8722;9.7% of TDI) due to the fact that its concentration was near the limit of quantification (LOQ) value taken for calculation. The significance of these results are discussed, herein

Fusarium toxins in wheat grains and products from organic and conventional farming

Celem badań była ocena zawartości fuzariotoksyn w ziarnie pszenicy pochodzącego z ekologicznego i konwencjonalnego systemu upraw oraz jego produktach, zakupionych na terenie województwa kujawsko-pomorskiego w latach 2009-2011. Łącznie oceniono 52 próby ekologiczne i 28 prób konwencjonalnych. Główne trichoteceny oraz zearalenon oznaczano metodą HPLC-MS/MS. W ziarnie oraz analizowanych produktach (mąka, makaron, płatki, otręby) dominującymi miko toksynami był deoksyniwalenol i zearalenon. Spośród produktów najwyższym poziomem toksycznych metabolitów charakteryzowały się otręby i makaron. Zarówno surowie, jak i produkty konwencjonalne były silniej zanieczyszczone. W żadnej z badanych prób zawartość mikotoksyn nie przekroczyła dopuszczalnych norm UE.The aim of this study was determination of fusariotoxin content in wheat grain from organic and conventional farming systems and its products, purchased in Kujawsko-Pomorskie in 2009-2011. In total 52 organic and 28 conventional samples were analysed. The main trichothecenes and zearalenone were determined by HPLC-MS/MS method. Deoxynivalenol and zearalenone were the predominant mycotoxins in the grain and tested products (flour, pasta, cereals, bran). Among the products the highest level of toxic metabolites was found in bran and pasta. Both raw material and conventional products were more contaminated. In none of the tested samples the mycotoxins content exceeded the acceptable maximum levels of EU

The Finite Pore Volume GAB Adsorption Isotherm Model as a Simple Tool to Estimate a Diameter of Cylindrical Nanopores

The finite pore volume Guggenheim–Anderson–de Boer (fpv-GAB) adsorption isotherm model has been considered as a simple tool which not only enables us to analyze the shape of isotherms theoretically, but also provides information about pore diameter. The proposed methodology is based on the geometrical considerations and the division of the adsorption space into two parts: the monolayer and the multilayer space. The ratio of the volumes of these two spaces is unambiguously related to the pore diameter. This ratio can be simply determined from the N2 adsorption isotherm by its fitting with the use of fpv-GAB model. The volume ratio is equal to the ratio of the adsorption capacities in the monolayer and the multilayer—two of the best-fit parameters. The suggested approach has been verified using a series of isotherms simulated inside ideal carbon nanotubes. The adsorption data for some real adsorbents has also been used during tests. The studies performed have proven that diameters estimated with the use of the proposed method are comparable with the geometrical sizes or diameters published by others and based on the application of more sophisticated methods. For pores wider than 3 nm, the relative error does not exceed a few percent. The approach based on the fpv-GAB model reflects well the differences in pore sizes for the series of materials. Therefore, it can be treated as a convenient tool to compare various samples