Acute bronchiolitis: Diagnosis and management

Neðst á síðunni er hægt að nálgast greinina í heild sinni með því að smella á hlekkinn Skoða/Opna(view/open)Acute bronchiolitis is a viral infection of the lower respiratory tract. The infection is frequent among young children and is most commonly caused by the Respiratory Syncytal Virus. The infection causes inflammation and narrowing of the bronchioles which leads to obstructive breathing and respiratory difficulties. The diagnosis is primarily made by clinical examination; laboratory and radiological studies are of little value. Treatment is principally supportive and symptomatic. The prognosis is generally excellent and the majority of patients recover without sequelae. The aim of this article is to review the symptoms, diagnosis and treatment of acute bronchiolitis according to current evidence. The epidemiology, pathophysiology and prognosis will also be discussed.Bráð berkjungabólga er veirusýking í neðri öndunarfærum. Þetta er mjög algengur sjúkdómur meðal ungra barna og er oftast af völdum RS-veirunnar. Sjúkdómurinn einkennist af bólgu og þrengingu á smáum berkjum í lungum barnanna og veldur öndunarerfiðleikum og teppu. Greining bráðrar berkjungabólgu byggist á sjúkdómseinkennum, en rannsóknir koma að litlu gagni. Meðferðin er fyrst og fremst stuðningsmeðferð, lyf og önnur úrræði hafa lítil áhrif á sjúkdómsganginn. Horfur eftir bráða berkjungabólgu eru yfirleitt mjög góðar og flest börn jafna sig að fullu. Tilgangur þessarar yfirlitsgreinar er að rekja einkenni, greiningu og meðferð bráðrar berkjungabólgu samkvæmt gagnreyndum heimildum. Einnig er gerð grein fyrir faraldsfræði, meinalífeðlisfræði og langtímahorfum sjúklinga með bráða berkjungabólg

Skólamálfræði: Hver er hún og hver ætti hún að vera? Um markmið og áhrif málfræðikennslu á unglingastigi grunnskólans

Í rannsókninni er sjónum beint að þeim hugmyndafræðilega grunni sem málfræðikennsla í grunnskólum á Íslandi, skólamálfræðin, byggist á til að leggja til umræðunnar um hvað eigi að kenna í málfræði og hvers vegna. Gengið er út frá að nemendur þurfi víðari sýn á tungumálið en hefðbundin málfræðikennsla býður upp á til að auka áhuga þeirra og ábyrgð á tungumálinu. Spurt er hvaða hugmyndir um tungumálið koma fram í aðalnámskrám, samræmdum prófum og námsefni; hvaða hugmyndir íslenskukennarar á unglingastigi grunnskóla hafa um tungumálið og eigið hlutverk þegar kemur að málfræðikennslu; hvernig þessar hugmyndir endurspeglast í viðhorfi nemenda til tungumálsins og hvernig þessar hugmyndir samræmast nýlegum kenningum málvísindamanna um máltöku, málkunnáttu, málbreytingar og tilbrigði í máli? Loks er lagt mat á hvort svör við spurningunum gefi tilefni til að endurskoða markmið málfræðikennslu og þá hvernig eða á hvaða hátt best sé að nálgast málfræði í grunnskólakennslu. Í rannsókninni er bæði beitt textarýni á skólaefni, þ.e. aðalnámskrár, samræmd próf og námsefni, og eigindlegri nálgun, en talað er við íslenskukennara og nemendur þeirra í 10. bekk. Helstu niðurstöður sýna að hefðbundin forskriftarmálfræði er nokkuð áberandi í skólaefninu og kennslunni og hefur haft veruleg áhrif á málhegðun nemenda og hvernig þeir hugsa um tungumálið. Mikil áhersla er á kennslu rétts máls í merkingunni viðurkennt mál eða málstaðall. Þetta tengist málvernd og málvöndun líkt og kemur fram í skólaefninu en kennarar líta bæði á það sem hlutverk sitt með kennslu rétts máls að vernda tungumálið og undirbúa nemendur fyrir lífið. Málkunnáttan og máltakan eru ekki þættir sem mikið ber á þó að einhver merki séu um að þeir séu á dagskrá í kennslu. Í skólaefninu eru sýnilegar hugmyndir um málbreytingar og mismunandi málvenjur, og nemendur og kennarar gera sér grein fyrir að mál breytist. Umfjöllun um málbreytingar er frekar á sögulegum nótum en samtímalegum en ekkert er fjallað um af hverju málið breytist. Margbreytileiki tungumálsins er helst nefndur í tengslum við kynslóðamun og misformlegt málsnið í ritun þar sem talmáls-einkenni eiga ekki við og gera nemendur sér grein fyrir þeim mun. Nokkuð vantar upp á skilning á því að kennslan felist bæði í að kenna um tungumálið, með hjálp hugtaka, og kenna í tungumáli, með kennslu rétts máls, og greina þar á milli. Með niðurstöðum rannsóknarinnar eru færð rök fyrir að breytinga sé þörf í málfræðikennslu grunnskóla. Meiri og markvissari áhersla skuli lögð á kenningar um máltöku, málkunnáttu og þá málfélagslegu krafta sem eru að verki í málsamfélaginu, skerpa á því sem þegar er gert og efla annað. Slíkt myndi kalla á breytingar í menntun kennaraefna, kennslunni og skólaefninu sem hún byggist á.This study focuses on the ideological foundation for grammar instruction at the compulsory school level in Iceland, i.e., school grammar, and contributes to the discussion about what kind of grammar should be taught and why. It is argued that students need a broader view of language than traditional school grammar can provide to make them more interested and responsible language users. The main questions are: Which ideas about the language are present in official school curricula, standard testing, and teaching material? Which ideas do teachers of Icelandic at the compulsory school level have about the language, language standards and their own roles when it comes to grammar instruction? How do the teachers’ ideas reflect in students’ view of the language, and how do these ideas conform to recent theories in linguistics about language acquisition, competence, change, and variation? Finally, the answers to these questions are discussed in light of whether they give reason to review the aims of grammar instruction, and if so, how, or in which way, it is best to approach grammar when teaching it at the compulsory level. The research includes text analyses of school material, i.e. official curricula, standardized tests, and teaching material, along with a qualitative approach consisting of interviews with Icelandic teachers and their students from the 10th grade. The main conclusion shows that traditional prescriptivism is prominent in school material and teaching and has affected the students’ language behaviour and how they view language. A strong emphasis is placed on the teaching of correct language, in the sense of accepted or standardized language. This is linked to language preservation and attention to language correctness, as can be seen in the school material, but teachers view their teaching of correct language as language preservation and as preparing students for life. Language competence and acquisition are not very visible, though they sometimes come up in class. Some ideas of language change and different language usage can be seen in the school material, and students and teachers are aware that language can change. Language change is discussed in historical terms rather than contemporary, but why it changes is never included. Language variation is mentioned, especially in relation to generational differences and different registers in writing where colloquial features are not accepted. Students are aware of that distinction. There is a lack of understanding that there are two aspects to teaching, frequently mixed up together, namely the teaching about language, through the terminology, and teaching of language, by teaching correct language. The conclusions are used to argue for the need for change in grammar instruction. More emphasis should be placed on teaching about language acquisition, language competence, and the sociolinguistic forces at work in the society. That would call for changes in teacher education and school material, as well as in the teaching itself

Client centred questionnaire: translation and adaption with cognitive interviewing.

Neðst á síðunni er hægt að nálgast greinina í heild sinni með því að smella á hlekkinnLítið er um að matstæki séu þróuð sérstaklega fyrir íslenskaraðstæður og þeim mun algengara að rannsakendur þýði þauog staðfæri miðað við þarfir íslenskra notenda. Hér á landi eroftast notuð annaðhvort aðferðin þýðing-bakþýðing eða rýnisérfræðihóps. Báðar aðferðirnar hafa sætt gagnrýni, meðalannars vegna þess að hvorug þeirra gerir ráð fyrir aðkomuhópsins sem kemur til með að bregðast við matstækinu aðþýðingar- og staðfærsluferlinu. Í þessari rannsókn var aðferðinígrunduð samtöl notuð til að þýða og staðfæra spurningalistatil að meta að hvaða marki þjónusta er skjólstæðingsmiðuð.Tilgangur ígrunduðu samtalanna var að tryggja að þeir semsvöruðu listanum skildu spurningar hans á sama hátt og aðskilningur þeirra væri sá sami og rannsakendur höfðu gert ráðfyrir. Eftir að gerð hafði verið frumþýðing á spurningalistanumvoru tekin þrettán ígrunduð samtöl í tveimur umferðum viðellefu viðmælendur sem höfðu þegið þjónustu á geðdeildSjúkrahússins á Akureyri. Þátttakendur voru spurðir um innihald36 spurninga og í kjölfar viðtalanna voru gerðar breytingar áorðalagi átján þeirra og fimm spurningar teknar út. Að þessuloknu var innri áreiðanleiki spurningalistans kannaður með þvíað leggja hann fyrir 30 þátttakendur. Innri áreiðanleiki reyndistvera 0,93 fyrir listann í heild og 0,62-0,86 fyrir undirflokkahans. Þýðing matstækja yfir á annað tungumál er vandasamtverk og auðvelt að misskilja hugtök og merkingu þess semverið er að þýða. Með því að hafa skjólstæðingana með íþýðingar- og staðfærsluferlinu er hægt að fyrirbyggja slíkt aðstórum hluta og stuðla þar með að réttmæti matstækisins.Niðurstöður rannsóknarinnar benda til þess að ígrunduð samtölséu gagnleg aðferð fyrir rannsakendur sem vilja tileinka sérskjólstæðingsmiðaðar aðferðir við þýðingu og staðfærslumatstækja. ---------------------------------------------------------------- Translating and adapting foreign assessment tools to Icelandiccontext is a common practice. The most prevalent ways ofaccomplishing this are the “translation and back translation”method and the “expert review” method. Both methods maybe criticized for a lack of input in the process from the groupthat will respond to the instrument. In this study the method ofcognitive interviewing was used to translate a questionnaire thatmeasures to what extent service is client-centred. The purposeof the cognitive interviews was to ensure that those respondingto the questionnaire would understand its questions in thesame way and that their understanding would fit the intentionsof the researchers. Following a preliminary translation, thirteencognitive interviews in two rounds were taken with elevenparticipants who had received service from the psychiatricdepartment at the Akureyri Hospital. Thirty six questions werediscussed leading to considerable changes in the wording ofeighteen questions and a removal of five. Internal reliability wasmeasured using data from thirty participants of mental healthcare and was 0,93 for the whole questionnaire and 0,62-0,86 forits conceptually derived subscales. Translation of assessmenttools is a complicated process as the meaning of words andconcepts are easily misunderstood. Misinterpretation can beconsiderably prevented by including clients in the processwhich may enhance the validity of the instrument. The resultsindicate that cognitive interviewing is a valuable method forresearchers wishing to adopt client-centred approaches fortranslation and adaptation of assessment tools

Ocean-rafted pumice constrains postglacial relative sea-level and supports Holocene ice cap survival

Distally deposited tephra from explosive volcanic eruptions can be a powerful tool for precise dating and correlation of sedimentary archives and landforms. However, the morphostratigraphic and chronological potential of ocean-rafted pumice has been under-utilized considering its long observational history and widespread distribution on modern and palaeo-shorelines around the world. Here we analyze the geochemical composition and elevation data of 60 samples of ocean-rafted pumice collected since 1958 from raised beaches on Svalbard. Comparison of pumice data with postglacial relative sea-level history suggests eight distinct pumice rafting events throughout the North Atlantic during the Middle and Late Holocene. Analyzed ocean-rafted pumice exhibit consistent silicic composition characteristic of deposits from Iceland’s volcanic system, Katla. Eruption-triggered jökulhlaups are key drivers of the transport of pumice from the Katla caldera to beyond the coast of Iceland and into the surface currents of the North Atlantic Ocean. Thus, the correlation of distinct, high-concentration pumice horizons from Katla deposited along raised Middle Holocene beach ridges in Svalbard further advocates for the persistence of the Mýrdalsjökull ice cap through the Holocene thermal maximum

Serving the same masters while competing: Common ow- nership of listed companies in Iceland

Tilgangur þessarar greinar er að fjalla um og varpa ljósi á sameiginlegt eignarhald fyrirtækja á skráðum hlutabréfamarkaði á Íslandi og er það borið saman við umfang slíks eignarhalds í Bandaríkjunum. Nokkur umræða hefur verið um hversu fáir aðilar eiga stóra hluti í íslenskum fyrirtækjum sem eru í samkeppni við hvert annað og því er umfang þessa og þróun á íslenskum hlutabréfamarkaði greind. Sjónum er beint að þremur mörkuðum hér á landi þar sem tveir eða þrír keppinautar eru skráðir í Kauphöll Íslands. Það eru trygginga-, fjarskipta, og fasteignamarkaðir. Þá er umfang fjárfestinga lífeyrissjóða á íslenskum hlutabréfamarkaði greint á fjórum mismunandi tímapunktum; árin 2003, 2007, 2014 og 2016. Þótt erfitt sé að bera saman hlutabréfaeign milli tímabila sést að sameiginlegt eignarhald var mun minna fyrir efnahagshrunið árið 2008 en á árunum eftir hrun, bæði hjá öllum stærstu hluthöfum skráðra fyrirtækja og þá einkum lífeyrissjóðum. Um mitt ár 2016 var eign lífeyrissjóða í skráðum hlutafélögum í Kauphöll Íslands orðin umtalsverð eða um 50% af markaðsvirði allra skráðra félaga. Stærstu lífeyrissjóðirnir áttu hlut í nánast öllum hlutafélögum í kauphöllinni. Á þeim mörkuðum sem hér er fjallað um fara lífeyrissjóðirnir með yfir 45% eign í öllum skráðum fasteignafélögum, yfir 35% í öllum skráðum tryggingafélögum og yfir 50% í fjarskiptafyrirtækjum á markaði. Ekki liggur fyrir hvaða afleiðingar þetta sameiginlega eignarhald á íslenskum fyrirtækjum hefur á samkeppni og verð. Engar rannsóknir hafa enn verið gerðar á því. Bandarískar rannsóknir benda þó til þess að slíkt eignarhald hafi skaðleg áhrif á samkeppni. Í ljósi umfangs þess á Íslandi er ástæða til þess að greina áhrif þess hér og mun greinin því varpa betra ljósi á hvernig þróunin hefur verið á Íslandi síðustu tæpu tvo áratugi.The article analyses common or horizontal ownership of shares on the Icelandic Stock Exchange. We compare this to common ownership of listed shares in the U.S. The situation in Iceland has not been subject to much formal research despite clear signs of concentrated ownership. We look at three Icelandic markets where two or three competing firms all have their shares listed on the stock exchange. The markets are for insurance, telecommunications and real estate. We also look at the holdings of shares by Icelandic pension funds at four points in time, the years 2003, 2007, 2014 and 2016. Although the stock market has changed considerably in many respects within that timeframe, making direct comparison difficult, we conclude that common ownership was far less prevalent before the crash, both among pension funds and all shareholders. At mid-year 2016, the pension funds dominated holdings of shares in most listed companies in Iceland. The largest pension funds each held shares in almost all listed companies. In the three markets that we analyse the pension funds held over 45% of the shares in real estate companies, 35% in insurance and 50% in telecommunications. We do not analyse the consequences of this concentrated and common ownership on competition and prices. That remains a subject for further study. Based on the results from research into the effects of common ownership in the U.S. this development should though clearly be a cause for concern.Peer Reviewe

Gas emissions and crustal deformation from the Krýsuvík high temperature geothermal system, Iceland

The Krýsuvík volcanic system is located on the oblique spreading Reykjanes Peninsula, SW Iceland. Since early 2009 the region has been undergoing episodes of localized ground uplift and subsidence. From April–November 2013, we operated near-real time monitoring of gas emissions in Krýsuvík, using a Multi-component Gas Analyzer System (Multi-GAS), collecting data on gas composition from a fumarole (H₂O, CO₂, SO₂, H₂S). The dataset in this study, comprises a near-continuous gas composition time series, the quantification of diffuse CO₂ gas flux, analytical results for direct samples of dry gas, seismic records, and GPS data. Gas emissions from the Krýsuvík geothermal system were examined and compared with crustal deformation and seismicity. The gas emissions from the Krýsuvík system are H₂O-dominated, with CO₂ as the most abundant dry gas species, followed by smaller concentrations of H₂S. The average subsurface equilibrium temperature was calculated as 278 °C. This is consistent with previous observations made through sporadic spot sampling campaigns. In addition, the semi-continuous Multi-GAS dataset reveals higher variations in gas composition than previously reported by spot sampling. The diffuse soil CO₂ flux is found to be variable between the three studied degassing areas in Krýsuvík, ranging from 10.9–70.9 T/day, with the highest flux in Hveradalir where the Multi-GAS station is located. The total flux is estimated as 101 T/day. Comparison between Multi-GAS and geophysical data shows that peaks of H₂O-rich emissions appears to follow crustal movements. Coinciding with the H₂O-rich peaks, SO₂ is detected in minor amounts (~0.6 ppmv), allowing for calculations of H₂O/SO₂, CO₂/SO₂ and H₂S/SO₂ ratios. This is the first time SO₂ has been detected in the Krýsuvík area. The large variations in H₂O/CO₂ and H₂O/H₂S ratios are considered to reflect variable degassing activity in the fumarole. The activity of the fumarole appears less intense during intervals of low or no recorded seismic events. The H2₂O/CO₂ and H₂O/H₂S ratios are lower, presumably due to H₂O condensation affecting the steam jet before reaching the Multi-GAS inlet tube

Tephra without borders: Far-reaching clues into past explosive eruptions

This review is intended to highlight recent exciting advances in the study of distal (>100 km from the source) tephra and cryptotephra deposits and their potential application for volcanology. Geochemical correlations of tephra between proximal and distal locations have extended the geographical distribution of tephra over tens of millions square kilometers. Such correlations embark on the potential to reappraise volume and magnitude estimates of known eruptions. Cryptotephra investigations in marine, lake and ice-core records also give rise to continuous chronicles of large explosive eruptions many of which were hitherto unknown. Tephra preservation within distal ice sheets and varved lake sediments permit precise dating of parent eruptions and provide new insight into the frequency of eruptions. Recent advances in analytical methods permit an examination of magmatic processes and the evolution of the whole volcanic belts at distances of hundreds and thousands of kilometers from source. Distal tephrochronology has much to offer volcanology and has the potential to significantly contribute to our understanding of sizes, recurrence intervals and geochemical make-up of the large explosive eruptions

Re-evaluation and extension of the Marine Isotope Stage 5 tephrostratigraphy of the Faroe Islands region: The cryptotephra record

PMA, SMD, WENA and NJGP are supported by NERC through the SMART project (NE/F020600/1, NE/F02116X/1, NE/F021445/1). The research leading to the results for the MIS 4 and 5a tephra horizons has received funding from the European Research Council under the European Union's Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013) / ERC grant agreement n° [259253]. PMA, SMD and NJGP acknowledge the support of the Climate Change Consortium of Wales (C3W). JB is funded by the Research Council of Norway through the INTERACT project (project no. 221999).Abstract Previous studies of marine sequences from the Faroe Islands region have identified a series of coarse-grained tephra horizons deposited during Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 5. Here we reassess the MIS 5 tephrostratigraphy of the Faroe Islands region and focus on the cryptotephra deposits preserved within the fine-grained fraction of marine core LINK 16. We also extend the record to encompass the late MIS 6 and early MIS 4 periods. A density separation technique, commonly used for tephra investigations in lacustrine settings but rarely applied to marine sediments, is utilised to explore the fine-grained material and EPMA and LA-ICP-MS are employed to determine the major and trace element composition of individual tephra shards. In total, 3 basaltic and 3 rhyolitic Icelandic cryptotephra deposits with homogeneous geochemical compositions are identified — all of which have the potential to act as isochronous tie-lines. Geochemical results highlight that the Grímsvötn volcanic system of Iceland is the predominant source of the basaltic horizons and the Öraefajökull or Torfajökull systems are the likely sources of the rhyolitic deposits. Three of the horizons have been previously recognised in Faroe Islands region marine sequences, with two of these deposits traceable into a Norwegian Sea sequence. An early MIS 4 rhyolitic horizon is the most widespread deposit as it can be traced into the Norwegian Sea and to the south into a record from the Rockall Trough. Basaltic and rhyolitic horizons deposited during late MIS 6 have not been recognised in other sequences and represent new additions to the regional tephrostratigraphy.Publisher PDFPeer reviewe

The 1874-1876 volcano-tectonic episode at Askja, North Iceland: Lateral flow revisited

The Askja volcanic system, North Iceland, experienced a volcano-tectonic episode between 1874 and 1876, the climax of which was a rhyolitic, phreatoplinian to Plinian eruption at Askja central volcano on 28–29 March 1875. Fissure eruptions also occurred in 1875, producing the Nýjahraun lava, 45–65 km north of Askja. The Nýjahraun basalt is indistinguishable, in terms of whole-rock major elements, from the small-volume basaltic eruptions that took place at Askja in the early 20th century. It has been suggested that all of these basalts originated from a shallow magma chamber beneath Askja, with the Nýjahraun eruptions being fed by northward-propagating lateral dykes. It has also been conjectured that the Holuhraun lava, located at the southern tip of the Askja volcanic system 15–25 km south of Askja, was connected with the 1874–1876 Askja volcano-tectonic episode. We re-examine these interpretations in light of new whole-rock, glass and melt inclusion analyses from samples collected along the length of the Askja volcanic system. Glasses from Nýjahraun and the Askja 20th century eruptions are geochemically distinct. We suggest that the Askja 20th century basalts mixed with evolved melts in the crust, while the Nýjahraun magma evolved without such interactions. The Holuhraun basalt is more similar to lavas erupted on the Bárðarbunga-Veiðivötn volcanic system than to postglacial basalts from Askja, indicating that particular geochemical signatures are not necessarily confined to the tectonic or structural surface expression of single volcanic systems. This has important implications for the identification and delineation of individual volcanic systems beneath the northwest sector of Vatnajökull.Access to the Edinburgh Ion Microprobe Facility was funded by NERC grant IMF386/1109. MEH was supported by NERC studentship NE/F008929/1.This is the published version of an article originally published in Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems and is also available at http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ggge.20151/abstract. Copyright 2013 American Geophysical Union