Parameter Identification of Nonlinear System on Combustion Engine Based MVEM using PEM

In four-stroke engine injection system, often called spark ignition (SI) engine, the air-fuel ratio (AFR) is taken from the measurement of lambda sensor in the exhaust. This sensor does not directly describe how much AFR in the combustion chamber due to the large transport delay. Therefore, the lambda sensor is used only as a feedback in AFR control "correction", not as the "main" control. The purpose of this research is to identify the parameters of the non-linear system in SI engines to produce AFR estimator. The AFR estimator is expected to be used as a feedback of the main "AFR" control system. The process of identifying the parameters using the Gauss-Newton method, due to its rapid computation to Achieve convergence, is based on prediction error minimization (PEM). The models of AFR estimator is an open-loop system without a universal exhaust gas oxygen (UEGO) sensors as feedback, called a virtual AFR sensor. The high price of UEGO sensors makes the virtual AFR sensor can be a practical solution to be applied in AFR control. The model in this research is based on the mean value engine models (MVEM) with some modifications. The research dataset was taken from a Hyundai Verna 2002 with the additional UEGO type of lambda sensors. The throttle opening angle (input) is played by stepping on the gas pedal and the signal to the injector (input) is set to a certain quantity to produce the AFR (output) value read by the UEGO sensor. This research produces an open loop estimator model or AFR virtual sensors with normalized root mean square error (NRMSE) = 0.06831 = 6.831%

Ahozko hizkuntzaren jabekuntza eta honen zailtasunak eta nahasmenak

38 p. : il.-- Bibliogr.: p. 32-34[EUS] Lan honen helburua ahozko hizkuntza jabetzeko bidea azaltzea eta honen garrantzia azpimarratzea da, Haur Hezkuntzako mailan oinarrituz (0-6 urte). Honekin batera, hizkuntza jabekuntzaren zailtasunak eta nahasmenak ezagutarazi nahi dira. Horretarako, honen oinarri biologikoak, teoria ezberdinak, garapena eta egitura ere ezagutu eta ulertu behar dira. Hau da, hizkuntzaren jabekuntzari buruzko teoria ugari egon dira bizitzan zehar, autore oso ezagunen eskuetatik, hala nola, Skinner, Chomksy eta Piaget, besteak beste. Baina teoria hauek ulertzeko, lehenik eta behin, honen oinarri biologikoak ikertu behar dira. Ondoren, hizkuntzaren garapen prozesuaren dimentsioak haurtzaroaren etapa desberdinetan nola garatzen den jorratuko da. Hau ezinbestekoa da ahozko hizkuntzaren nahasmenak eta zailtasunak aztertzeko. Ildo honetatik jarraituz, Arreta Goiztiarra zer den eta ahozko hizkuntza nola lantzen den azpimarratzea ezinbestekoa da. Amaitzeko, bost urteko TEA nahasmena duen ume bati bideratutako esku-hartze baten proposamen bat eskaintzen da, ahozkotasuna lantzeko helburuarekin, ume honen beharrizan nabarmenena baita.[ES] El objetivo de este trabajo es explicar el proceso de la adquisición del lenguaje oral y destacar su importancia, concretamente en el nivel de Educación Infantil (0-6 años). Junto a esto, se pretende dar a conocer las dificultades y trastornos de la adquisición lingüística. Y para ello, hay que conocer y comprender sus fundamentos biológicos, sus diferentes teorías, su desarrollo y estructura. Es decir, ha habido numerosas teorías sobre la adquisición del lenguaje a lo largo de la vida, de manos de autores muy conocidos como Skinner, Chomksy y Piaget, entre otros. Pero para comprender estas teorías, en primer lugar, es preciso investigar sus fundamentos biológicos. A continuación, se abordará cómo se desarrollan las dimensiones del proceso de desarrollo del lenguaje en las diferentes etapas de la infancia. Esto es imprescindible para analizar los trastornos y dificultades del lenguaje oral que existen y pueden darse. En este sentido, es imprescindible dar a conocer que es la Atención temprana y ver cómo se trabaja el lenguaje oral. Para finalizar, se ofrece una propuesta de una intervención enfocada a un niño de cinco años con TEA, con el objetivo de trabajar la oralidad con el objetivo de trabajar la oralidad, que es la necesidad más destacable de este niño.[EN] The purpose of this work is to illustrate the path to the acquisition of the oral language and emphasize its importance, based on the level of the infant population (0-6 years). Along with this, the difficulties and disturbances of language ownership are intended to be known. For this purpose, the biological foundations, the different theories, the development and the structure of this subject must also be known and understood. In other words, there have been many theories about the possession of language throughout life, from well-known authors, such as Skinner, Chomksy, and Piaget. But to understand these theories, we must first investigate its biological grounds. Then, the dimensions of the language development process will focus on how it evolves at different stages of childhood. This is essential to the study of the disturbances and difficulties of the verbal language. Following this line, the manner in which the oral language is cultivated in the Early Attention is indispensable. Finally, is given a proposal for an intervention to a five years old child with a disorder called TEA, with the goal of cultivating orality, which is the most obvious necessity of this child

Species–area relationships on small islands differ among plant growth forms

Aim: We tested whether species–area relationships of small islands differ among plant growth forms and whether this influences the prevalence of the small-island effect (SIE). The SIE states that species richness on small islands is independent of island area or relates to area in a different way compared with larger islands. We investigated whether island isolation affects the limits of the SIE and which environmental factors drive species richness on small islands. Location: Seven hundred islands (< 100 km2) worldwide belonging to 17 archipelagos. Major taxa studied: Angiosperms. Methods: We applied linear and breakpoint species–area models for angiosperm species richness and for herb, shrub and tree species richness per archipelago separately, to test for the existence of SIEs. For archipelagos featuring the SIE, we calculated the island area at which the breakpoints occurred (breakpoint area) and used linear models to test whether the breakpoint areas varied with isolation. We used linear mixed-effect models to discern the effects of seven environmental variables related to island area, isolation and other environmental factors on the species richness of each growth form for islands smaller than the breakpoint area. Results: For 71% of all archipelagos, we found an SIE for total and herb species richness, and for 59% for shrub species richness and 53% for tree species richness. Shrub and tree species richness showed larger breakpoint areas than total and herb species richness. The breakpoint area was significantly positively affected by the isolation of islands within an archipelago for total and shrub species richness. Species richness on islands within the range of the SIE was differentially affected by environmental factors across growth forms. Main conclusion: The SIE is a widespread phenomenon that is more complex than generally described. Different functional groups have different environmental requirements that shape their biogeographical patterns and affect species–area and, more generally, richness–environment relationships. The complexity of these patterns cannot be revealed when measuring overall plant species richness.Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/501100001659Studienstiftung des Deutschen Volkes http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/501100004350Peer Reviewe

Plant invasion and speciation along elevational gradients on the oceanic island La Palma, Canary Islands.

Ecosystems that provide environmental opportunities but are poor in species and functional richness generally support speciation as well as invasion processes. These processes are expected not to be equally effective along elevational gradients due to specific ecological, spatial, and anthropogenic filters, thus controlling the dispersal and establishment of species. Here, we investigate speciation and invasion processes along elevational gradients. We assess the vascular plant species richness as well as the number and percentage of endemic species and non- native species systematically along three elevational gradients covering large parts of the climatic range of La Palma, Canary Islands. Species richness was negatively correlated with elevation, while the percentage of Canary endemic species showed a positive relationship. However, the percentage of Canary–Madeira endemics did not show a relationship with elevation. Non- native species richness (indicating invasion) peaked at 500 m elevation and showed a consistent decline until about 1,200 m elevation. Above that limit, no non- native species were present in the studied elevational gradients. Ecological, anthropo- genic, and spatial filters control richness, diversification, and invasion with elevation. With increase in elevation, richness decreases due to species–area relationships. Ecological limitations of native ruderal species related to anthropogenic pressure are in line with the absence of non- native species from high elevations indicating direc- tional ecological filtering. Increase in ecological isolation with elevation drives diversi- fication and thus increased percentages of Canary endemics. The best preserved eastern transect, including mature laurel forests, is an exception. The high percentage of Canary–Madeira endemics indicates the cloud forest’s environmental uniqueness— and thus ecological isolation—beyond the Macaronesian islands

Topography-driven isolation, speciation and a global increase of endemism with elevation

Aim: Higher-elevation areas on islands and continental mountains tend to be separated by longer distances, predicting higher endemism at higher elevations; our study is the first to test the generality of the predicted pattern. We also compare it empirically with contrasting expectations from hypotheses invoking higher speciation with area, temperature and species richness. Location: Thirty-two insular and 18 continental elevational gradients from around the world. Methods: We compiled entire floras with elevation-specific occurrence information, and calculated the proportion of native species that are endemic (‘percent endemism’) in 100-m bands, for each of the 50 elevational gradients. Using generalized linear models, we tested the relationships between percent endemism and elevation, isolation, temperature, area and species richness. Results: Percent endemism consistently increased monotonically with elevation, globally. This was independent of richness–elevation relationships, which had varying shapes but decreased with elevation at high elevations. The endemism–elevation relationships were consistent with isolation-related predictions, but inconsistent with hypotheses related to area, richness and temperature. Main conclusions: Higher per-species speciation rates caused by increasing isolation with elevation are the most plausible and parsimonious explanation for the globally consistent pattern of higher endemism at higher elevations that we identify. We suggest that topography-driven isolation increases speciation rates in mountainous areas, across all elevations and increasingly towards the equator. If so, it represents a mechanism that may contribute to generating latitudinal diversity gradients in a way that is consistent with both present-day and palaeontological evidence

Climate vs. topography – spatial patterns of plant species diversity and endemism on a high-elevation island

Climate and topography are among the most fundamental drivers of plant diversity. Here, we assessed the importance of climate and topography in explaining diversity patterns of species richness, endemic richness and endemicity on the landscape scale of an oceanic island and evaluated the independent contribution of climatic and topographic variables to spatial diversity patterns. 2. We constructed a presence/absence matrix of perennial endemic and native vascular plant species (including subspecies) in 890 plots on the environmentally very heterogeneous island of La Palma, Canary Islands. Species richness, endemic richness and endemicity were recorded, interpolated and related to climate (i.e. variables describing temperature, precipitation, variability and climatic rarity) and topography (i.e. topographic complexity, solar radiation, geologic age, slope and aspect). We used multimodel inference, spatial autoregressive models, variance partitioning and linear regression kriging as statistical methods. 3. Species richness is best explained by both climatic and topographic variables. Topographic variables (esp. topographic complexity and solar radiation) explain endemic richness, and climatic variables (esp. elevation/temperature and rainfall seasonality) explain endemicity. Spatial patterns of species richness, endemic richness and endemicity were in part geographically decoupled from each other. 4. Synthesis. We identified several topography-dependent processes ranging from evolutionary processes (micro-refugia, in situ speciation, pre-adaptation to rupicolous conditions, dispersal limitations) to human-induced influences (introduced herbivores, fire, land use) that possibly shape the endemic richness pattern of La Palma. In contrast, climate mainly drives endemicity, which is connected to ecological speciation and specialization to local conditions. We highlight the importance of incorporating climatic variability into future studies of plant species diversity and endemism. The spatial incongruence in hot spots of species richness, endemic richness and endemicity emphasizes the need for an integrated conservation approach acknowledging different diversity measures to protect the complete spectrum of diversity. High-elevation islands such as La Palma are highly suitable to study drivers of diversity and endemism, as they offer environmental gradients of continental magnitude on the landscape scale of a single climatic mini-continent and a large array of in situspeciated endemics

Overview of habitat history in subtropical oceanic island summit ecosystems

Summit ecosystems of oceanic islands constitute one of the most ephemeral and isolated ecosystems existing, harboring specific features that confer on their biota an outstanding distinctness. Summits are short-lived entities, being the last ecosystems to be constructed during the growth of the new oceanic island, and the first to vanish due either to island subsidence, island erosion, or both. Whereas their geological emergence/disappearance is controlled by the volcanic/erosion activity, Pleistocene glaciations in the past million years, by forcing the altitudinal shift of the timberline, have also likely created or destroyed summit ecosystems, enabling the appearance of alpine ecosystems during glacial maxima where they were not present in interglacial periods and vice versa. On the other hand, summit ecosystems constitute islands within islands, being more isolated from climatically similar ecosystems than the coastlines of the islands containing them. Thus summit biota, frequently displaying a high endemicity, may originate either through dispersal from other close summit ecosystems during peak periods, or from the colonization of the summits and later evolution to the new conditions from mid-altitude species of the same island. Conversely, if peak periods are absent, the disappearance of summit ecosystems implies the extinction or extirpation of their constitutive species. Current summit species have likely occupied a much larger area during glacial periods. Thus the summits may be classified as climatic refuges. This is especially the case if glacial periods were associated with much drier conditions on oceanic islands as is the case on continents