Benefits and challenges of scaling up expansion of Marine Protected Area networks in the Verde Island Passage, Central Philippines

Locally-established marine protected areas (MPAs) have been proven to achieve local-scale fisheries and conservation objectives. However, since many of these MPAs were not designed to form ecologically-connected networks, their contributions to broader-scale goals such as complementarity and connectivity can be limited. In contrast, integrated networks of MPAs designed with systematic conservation planning are assumed to be more effective-ecologically, socially, and economically-than collections of locally-established MPAs. There is, however, little empirical evidence that clearly demonstrates the supposed advantages of systematic MPA networks. A key reason is the poor record of implementation of systematic plans attributable to lack of local buy-in. An intermediate scenario for the expansion of MPAs is scaling up of local decisions, whereby locally-driven MPA initiatives are coordinated through collaborative partnerships among local governments and their communities. Coordination has the potential to extend the benefits of individual MPAs and perhaps to approach the potential benefits offered by systematic MPA networks. We evaluated the benefits of scaling up local MPAs to form networks by simulating seven expansion scenarios for MPAs in the Verde Island Passage, central Philippines. The scenarios were: uncoordinated community-based establishment of MPAs; two scenarios reflecting different levels of coordinated MPA expansion through collaborative partnerships; and four scenarios guided by systematic conservation planning with different contexts for governance. For each scenario, we measured benefits through time in terms of achievement of objectives for representation of marine habitats. We found that: in any governance context, systematic networks were more efficient than non-systematic ones; systematic networks were more efficient in broader governance contexts; and, contrary to expectations but with caveats, the uncoordinated scenario was slightly more efficient than the coordinated scenarios. Overall, however, coordinated MPA networks have the potential to be more efficient than the uncoordinated ones, especially when coordinated planning uses systematic methods

Limited Progress in Improving Gender and Geographic Representation in Coral Reef Science

Despite increasing recognition of the need for more diverse and equitable representation in the sciences, it is unclear whether measurable progress has been made. Here, we examine trends in authorship in coral reef science from 1,677 articles published over the past 16 years (2003–2018) and find that while representation of authors that are women (from 18 to 33%) and from non-OECD nations (from 4 to 13%) have increased over time, progress is slow in achieving more equitable representation. For example, at the current rate, it would take over two decades for female representation to reach 50%. Given that there are more coral reef non-OECD countries, at the current rate, truly equitable representation of non-OECD countries would take even longer. OECD nations also continue to dominate authorship contributions in coral reef science (89%), in research conducted in both OECD (63%) and non-OECD nations (68%). We identify systemic issues that remain prevalent in coral reef science (i.e., parachute science, gender bias) that likely contribute to observed trends. We provide recommendations to address systemic biases in research to foster a more inclusive global science community. Adoption of these recommendations will lead to more creative, innovative, and impactful scientific approaches urgently needed for coral reefs and contribute to environmental justice efforts.We acknowledge the contributions of the many unrecognized and undervalued individuals in coral reef research whose efforts have made it possible for the field to progress. These scientists have collected data, translated across languages, coordinated field work, welcomed foreign visitors to their countries, shared ideas, trained and mentored students, become friends, inspired, and built the foundation for the discipline we know today. We acknowledge the work of all coral reef scientists who continue day after day to pursue equity, inclusion, and justice in the field and for their colleagues and themselves.Ye

What's on the horizon for community-based conservation? Emerging threats and opportunities

Community-based conservation can support livelihoods and biodiversity, while reinforcing local and Indigenous values, cultures, and institutions. Its delivery can help address cross-cutting global challenges, such as climate change, conservation, poverty, and food security. Therefore, understanding trends in community-based conservation is pertinent to setting and implementing global goals. We undertook a horizon scan to prioritize 15 emerging threats and opportunities expected to impact the future effectiveness of community-based conservation. Topics relate to global biodiversity policy; human rights; shifting human geography; inclusion, diversity, equity, and access; conservation finance and income; and economic reforms. Our findings offer guidance on strengthening community-based conservation to achieve global environmental and development goals

Urban coral reefs: Degradation and resilience of hard coral assemblages in coastal cities of East and Southeast Asia

© 2018 The Author(s) Given predicted increases in urbanization in tropical and subtropical regions, understanding the processes shaping urban coral reefs may be essential for anticipating future conservation challenges. We used a case study approach to identify unifying patterns of urban coral reefs and clarify the effects of urbanization on hard coral assemblages. Data were compiled from 11 cities throughout East and Southeast Asia, with particular focus on Singapore, Jakarta, Hong Kong, and Naha (Okinawa). Our review highlights several key characteristics of urban coral reefs, including “reef compression” (a decline in bathymetric range with increasing turbidity and decreasing water clarity over time and relative to shore), dominance by domed coral growth forms and low reef complexity, variable city-specific inshore-offshore gradients, early declines in coral cover with recent fluctuating periods of acute impacts and rapid recovery, and colonization of urban infrastructure by hard corals. We present hypotheses for urban reef community dynamics and discuss potential of ecological engineering for corals in urban areas

Scaling up to form marine protected area networks: the role of coordination of initiatives and institutional collaborations in the Philippines

Approaches to management of coastal resources have been evolving consistently over the past decades. Integrated and ecosystem-based approaches to management have been advocated increasingly to address continuous degradation of coastal and marine resources. Examples of these large-scale approaches are the establishment of networks of marine protected areas (MPAs). Networks of MPAs are believed, and to some extent have been proven, to provide higher ecological, social, and economic benefits than small, isolated MPAs. In order to provide more benefits, MPA networks have to be well-designed and well-managed. However, designing networks with consideration of ecosystem function can be difficult in certain governance contexts, because ecological and governance scales are rarely congruent. MPA networks can be challenging to establish and implement, particularly in countries with high dependence on natural resources and small, numerous, and disparate governance units. These conditions reduce the acceptability of ecologically-sound network designs, because more local communities that are highly dependent on coastal resources will be affected. Moreover, the governance of networks becomes challenging with increasing numbers of involved governance units, because of the increasing diversity of social, economic, and political interests that complicates consensus-building and implementation of concerted management efforts. The Philippines is widely-known for its extraordinary biodiversity, considerable dependence on marine resources, decentralized government system, and extensive implementation of locally-established MPAs. However, because of the continuous decline of ecosystems and native species, and the deficiencies of existing management initiatives, scaling up to form networks is increasingly being advocated. Scaling up is facilitated by collaborations of neighbouring local governments. These collaborations are believed to help improve MPA design and management through coordinated activities, and sharing of resources and experience. Using the Philippines as a case study, the goals of this thesis were to: 1. Understand how scaling up operates to form MPA networks; 2. Examine the benefits and challenges of scaling up; and, 3. Document lessons on how effectively scaled-up MPA networks can be governed. To achieve these goals, I first described the scaling up framework used in the Philippines and the role of institutional collaborations when scaling up. In Chapter 2, I reviewed the history of MPAs and coastal management that led to the development of networks, and identified fundamental elements of successful collaborative partnerships. I found that there were 40 networks in the country with varying histories and objectives, and that most conservationists and researchers perceived that scaling up had the following advantages: 1) enhanced enforcement; 2) cost-effective management; 3) improved design and coordination of responses to threats; and 4) facilitated resolution of conflict among neighbouring communities and local governments. However, these experts also recognized the following challenges: 1) low technical capacity and high dependence on bridging organizations to help with MPA design; 2) lack of funding to sustain joint efforts; and 3) conflict arising from the lack of shared visions. In Chapter 3, I examined the benefits and challenges of scaling up in terms of the design and expansion of MPA networks. In this chapter, I defined scaling up as the coordinated expansion of locally-motivated MPA initiatives facilitated by collaborations of local governments and their communities. I simulated future scenarios of MPA expansion and compared these scenarios in terms of achievement of objectives for habitat representation. I found that coordinated expansion was better than uncoordinated community-based establishment. Coordination improved planning through its broader perspective, inclusion of more ecological and social information, and ability to transcend boundaries by sharing municipal waters. However, I recognized that scaling up required considerable technical input that was beyond the capacity of most local governments. Moreover, scaling up would require local governments and communities to understand and accept that the immediate benefits and costs of MPAs will not be equitably distributed, and to arrange for these spatially-uneven costs and benefits to be redistributed in some way agreeable to the parties involved. I then examined the benefits and challenges of scaling up in terms of improving MPA management in Chapter 4. I evaluated the management performance of networks and the extent to which networks enhance the management of individual MPAs. I did this with existing and newly-designed tools to assess management performance, key informant interviews, and community perception surveys. The methods I used provided descriptions of management performance relative to a variety of criteria, and explanations of the successes and bottlenecks in management. I found that networks and MPAs are inter-dependent. On one hand, well-managed MPAs have experienced managers and local governments that share lessons and experiences with network members. On the other hand, well-coordinated networks serve as platforms to convene these local governments and MPA managers to make decisions and share resources to help improve the MPAs. Networks rely on the characteristics and interactions of people and social institutions. In Chapter 5, I evaluated the influence of governance context on participation, governance capacity, and management performance of networks. The contextual factors I examined included: network sizes (e.g. number of local governments), institutional arrangements (e.g. structure, objectives), and socioeconomic and political contexts. I did not find concrete evidence of the effect of sizes of the MPA networks on participation and governance capacity. Instead, institutional arrangements of these networks that stood out as positively influencing participation, capacity and performance, included: less complicated objectives, less demanding structures and interactions, more inclusive membership of representatives, and increased communication from network to community levels. Strong leadership combined with transparency, accountability, incentive systems, and participatory measures, contributed to increased participation, better coordination, and higher management performance. The results of this thesis showed that scaling up local MPA initiatives through institutional collaborations is an effective approach to establishing MPA networks. In Chapter 6, I discuss the implications of scaling up and outline considerations to guide the development of MPA networks and promote their sustainability in areas with governance contexts similar to the Philippines. Although it makes sense to move from local-scale initiatives and promote "working together", we should be mindful of difficulties when prescribing scaled-up approaches. Institutional experimentation and "learning by doing" have provided examples of successful management interventions in the literature and in this study. However, key lessons learned from this thesis are that scaling up can entail large transaction costs when trying to organize and facilitate discussions among local governments, especially when the region has highly complex governance. We should aim to determine the feasibility of approaches to scaling up, identify ways to remove barriers to implementation, and consider the institutional capacity of local governments and communities, in order to increase the sustainability of MPA networks

Sensitivities of coral reefs in the Verde Island passage to climate change

The Verde Island Passage (VIP) is located at the center of marine shorefish biodiversity in the Philippines. It is under tremendous amount of stress from natural and anthropogenic impacts. A vulnerability assessment of the VIP’s coral reef areas to climate change, particularly elevated sea-surface temperatures (SST), increased storminess and sea-level rise (SLR) is presented. Potential impacts on live hard coral cover due to increasing SST ranged from 3% to 22% loss. These projections were based on the high percentage covers of thermally sensitive coral families such as acroporids and pocilloporids. Potential impacts on diversity attributed to high SST ranged from 0.8% to 1.6% based on species-area curves and 10% to 49% based on sensitivities of coral genera from available literature. Estimated live hard coral cover and diversity loss due to the impact of storms ranged from 12.5% to 37.5% and 7% to 22%, respectively. Sea-level rise had the lowest impact on reef cover and diversity, resulting to an estimated loss of 4% to 7% in coral cover and 0.60% to 0.80% in coral diversity. Impact on reef fishes was measured based on their dependence and association with corals. Percentage loss of reef fish species richness and abundance ranged from 9% to 16% and 12% to 54%. These projected impacts on the health and biodiversity of the coral reefs of the VIP are conservative but still significant. The towns and communities surrounding the passage should not be complacent and should increase their efforts to protect and manage their coral reef areas

Evaluating management performance of marine protected area networks in the Philippines

In the Philippines, formation of MPA networks is seen as a means to improve management of existing MPAs by forging collaborative partnerships among local governments to coordinate initiatives and share information and resources. Although forging partnerships is widely advocated because of the beliefs of the benefits it brings, there is very little empirical evidence about the management performance of MPA networks, and the extent to which networks enhance the management of individual MPAs. In this paper, we present measures of the management performance of collaborative partnerships to coordinate management of MPA networks. To evaluate performance of MPA networks managed by multiple governance units, we used a combination of quantitative and qualitative survey tools (e.g. performance assessment tools, interviews, perception surveys), and synthesized the results using a scoring rubric and analysis of strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats. We evaluated three MPA networks in the Philippines with different sizes, histories, and objectives to test our research methods. We found that our approach improved overall evaluation of the performance of MPA networks and individual MPAs. Moreover, our analysis for each MPA network showed different combinations of outcomes, highlighting the importance of using a suite of research methods and tools. We found that MPA networks furthered the development and effectiveness of spatial management in the Philippines. However, the objectives of the collaborative partnerships, their histories, and the diversity and complexity of governance (e.g. more diverse interests with increasing number of participating institutions) had a mixed effect on the management of networks and of individual MPAs. The outcomes of this research provide an approach to evaluating management performance that can facilitate the establishment and strengthening of MPA networks in areas similar to the Philippines with multiple governance units and complex social, economic, and political contexts

Marine protected area networks in the Philippines: trends and challenges for establishment and governance

Marine protected areas (MPAs) are the most extensively implemented fisheries management and conservation tool in the Philippines. Most MPAs have been established and managed by communities together with local governments in a variety of community-based and co-management schemes. This approach has proven successful in gaining community acceptance and achieving local-scale fisheries and conservation objectives. However, the contribution of these MPAs to ecologically connected networks of MPAs is variable since most MPAs were not designed to be parts of networks. Nevertheless, there is growing support for the development of MPAs within the national integrated coastal management framework which supports the "scaling up" of MPAs to establish networks. Scaling up in the Philippine context is achieved by forging inter-institutional collaboration among neighboring local governments (i.e. village to provincial level), with the assistance of other institutions such as non-government organizations, academe, government agencies, and development partners including donors. Herein we review the history of MPAs in the Philippines and the development of inter-institutional collaborations and present examples of scaling up of MPAs to form networks. To further the establishment of social and ecological MPA networks in the Philippines, we describe approaches to forming MPA networks and discuss the fundamental elements of successful collaborative partnerships

Influence of governance context on the management performance of marine protected area networks

In the Philippines, networks of marine protected areas (MPAs) are more complex than individual MPAs, primarily due to involvement of multiple governance units. Hence, there is a need to understand the influence of governance context of networks on management performance. We addressed this need indirectly by evaluating the participation of network members and the governance capacity of three MPA networks with varying sizes, histories, and compositions of local governments and constituencies. We defined participation as the involvement of local governments and other stakeholders in decision-making processes. We defined governance capacity as the ability to govern interactions of social, economic, and political processes and dynamics in a political unit. We used qualitative, semi-structured key informant interviews and focus group discussions to ascertain whether participation and governance capacity are influenced by network size, institutional arrangements, and social and political contexts. We found that the sizes of the MPA networks did not affect participation and governance capacity. Instead, participation and capacity were influenced by institutional arrangements and the socioeconomic and political contexts of the local governments involved. We found that less complicated network objectives and systems for engagement, more inclusive membership, better communication, incentive systems, and strong leadership enhanced participation and governance capacity

Data from: Benefits and challenges of scaling up expansion of marine protected area networks in the Verde Island Passage, Central Philippines

Locally-established marine protected areas (MPAs) have been proven to achieve local-scale fisheries and conservation objectives. However, since many of these MPAs were not designed to form ecologically-connected networks, their contributions to broader-scale goals such as complementarity and connectivity can be limited. In contrast, integrated networks of MPAs designed with systematic conservation planning are assumed to be more effective—ecologically, socially, and economically—than collections of locally-established MPAs. There is, however, little empirical evidence that clearly demonstrates the supposed advantages of systematic MPA networks. A key reason is the poor record of implementation of systematic plans attributable to lack of local buy-in. An intermediate scenario for the expansion of MPAs is scaling up of local decisions, whereby locally-driven MPA initiatives are coordinated through collaborative partnerships among local governments and their communities. Coordination has the potential to extend the benefits of individual MPAs and perhaps to approach the potential benefits offered by systematic MPA networks. We evaluated the benefits of scaling up local MPAs to form networks by simulating seven expansion scenarios for MPAs in the Verde Island Passage, central Philippines. The scenarios were: uncoordinated community-based establishment of MPAs; two scenarios reflecting different levels of coordinated MPA expansion through collaborative partnerships; and four scenarios guided by systematic conservation planning with different contexts for governance. For each scenario, we measured benefits through time in terms of achievement of objectives for representation of marine habitats. We found that: in any governance context, systematic networks were more efficient than non-systematic ones; systematic networks were more efficient in broader governance contexts; and, contrary to expectations but with caveats, the uncoordinated scenario was slightly more efficient than the coordinated scenarios. Overall, however, coordinated MPA networks have the potential to be more efficient than the uncoordinated ones, especially when coordinated planning uses systematic methods