Stereotypical inferences: Philosophical relevance and psycholinguistic toolkit

Stereotypes shape inferences in philosophical thought, political discourse, and everyday life. These inferences are routinely made when thinkers engage in language comprehension or production: We make them whenever we hear, read, or formulate stories, reports, philosophical case-descriptions, or premises of arguments – on virtually any topic. These inferences are largely automatic: largely unconscious, non-intentional, and effortless. Accordingly, they shape our thought in ways we can properly understand only by complementing traditional forms of philosophical analysis with experimental methods from psycholinguistics. This paper seeks, first, to bring out the wider philosophical relevance of stereotypical inference, well beyond familiar topics like gender and race. Second, we wish to provide (experimental) philosophers with a toolkit to experimentally study these ubiquitous inferences and what intuitions they may generate. This paper explains what stereotypes are (Section 1), and why they matter to current and traditional concerns in philosophy – experimental, analytic, and applied (Section 2). It then assembles a psycholinguistic toolkit and demonstrates through two studies (Sections 3-4) how potentially questionnaire-based measures (plausibility-ratings) can be combined with process measures (reaction times and pupillometry) to garner evidence for specific stereotypical inferences and study when they ‘go through’ and influence our thinking

Temperature sensitivity of soil organic carbon respiration along a forested elevation gradient in the Rwenzori Mountains, Uganda

Tropical montane forests store high amounts of soil organic carbon (SOC). However, global warming may affect these stocks via enhanced soil respiration. Improved insight into the temperature response of SOC respiration can be obtained from in and ex situ warming studies. In situ warming via the translocation of intact soil mesocosms was carried out along an elevation gradient ranging between ca. 1250 m in the Kibale Forest to ca. 3000 m in the Rwenzori Mountains in Uganda. Samples from the same transect were also warmed ex situ. Ex situ results revealed that, following the elevation gradient, which represents a natural climate gradient, specific heterotrophic CO2 respiration decreased linearly by 1.01 +/- 0.12 mu g C h(-1) g(-1) of SOC per 100 m of elevation increase. The coefficient of temperature sensitivity increased from 1.50 +/- 0.13 in the lowest-to 2.68 +/- 0.25 in the highest-elevation cluster, showing a linear increase of 0.09 +/- 0.03 per 100 m of elevation increase. Additionally, respired CO2 was more depleted in( 13)C in the warmer lower elevations as compared to colder higher elevations, with a linear decrease of 0.23 %o +/- 0.04 %o per 100 m of elevation increase. Furthermore, the microbial community structure indicated a weak trend along the elevation gradient, with higher elevations more dominated by fungi relative to bacteria. The results indicate an increased recalcitrance and decreased mineralisation of SOC, with elevation likely driven by decreasing soil temperature and pH. Subsequently, after 2 years of in situ warming (0.9 to 2.8 ?C), specific heterotrophic SOC respiration tended to be lower for warmed soil compared to control soil. Furthermore, in warmed soils, delta C-13 values and SOC content tended to increase and decrease, respectively. Collectively, this points towards the increased mineralisation and depletion of readily available C during 2 years of warming. In conclusion, our results suggest that climate warming may trigger enhanced losses of SOC from tropical montane forests due to a combination of a higher temperature sensitivity of mineralisation and higher SOC content at higher elevations