Rituals Improve Children's Ability to Delay Gratification

To be accepted into social groups, individuals must internalize and reproduce appropriate group conventions, such as rituals. The copying of such rigid and socially stipulated behavioral sequences places heavy demands on executive function. Given previous research showing that challenging executive functioning improves it, it was hypothesized that engagement in ritualistic behaviors improves children's executive functioning, in turn improving their ability to delay gratification. A 3-month circle time games intervention with 210 schoolchildren (Mage = 7.78 years, SD = 1.47) in two contrasting cultural environments (Slovakia and Vanuatu) was conducted. The intervention improved children's executive function and in turn their ability to delay gratification. Moreover, these effects were amplified when the intervention task was imbued with ritual, rather than instrumental, cues

Gender differences in behavioral regulation in four societies: The United States, Taiwan, South Korea, and China

The current study investigates gender differences in behavioral regulation in four societies: the United States, Taiwan, South Korea, and China. Directly assessed individual behavioral regulation (Head–Toes–Knees–Shoulders, HTKS), teacher-rated classroom behavioral regulation (Child Behavior Rating Scale, CBRS) and a battery of school readiness assessments (mathematics, vocabulary, and early literacy) were used with 814 young children (ages 3–6 years). Results showed that girls in the United States had significantly higher individual behavioral regulation than boys, but there were no significant gender differences in any Asian societies. In contrast, teachers in Taiwan, South Korea, as well as the United States rated girls as significantly higher than boys on classroom behavioral regulation. In addition, for both genders, individual and classroom behavioral regulation were related to many aspects of school readiness in all societies for girls and boys. Universal and culturally specific findings and their implications are discussed

Fine Motor Skills and Executive Function Both Contribute to Kindergarten Achievement

Peer Reviewedhttp://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/92367/1/j.1467-8624.2012.01768.x.pd

Morphological properties of the last primaries, the tail feathers, and the alulae of Accipiter nisus, Columba livia, Falco peregrinus, and Falco tinnunculus

We investigated the mechanical properties (Young's modulus, bending stiffness, barb separation forces) of the tenth primary of the wings, of the alulae and of the middle tail feathers of Falco peregrinus. For comparison, we also investigated the corresponding feathers in pigeons (Columba livia), kestrels (Falco tinnunculus), and sparrowhawks (Accipiter nisus). In all four species, the Young's moduli of the feathers ranged from 5.9 to 8.4 GPa. The feather shafts of F. peregrinus had the largest cross-sections and the highest specific bending stiffness. When normalized with respect to body mass, the specific bending stiffness of primary number 10 was highest in F. tinnunculus, while that of the alula was highest in A. nisus. In comparison, the specific bending stiffness, measured at the base of the tail feathers and in dorso-ventral bending direction, was much higher in F. peregrinus than in the other three species. This seems to correlate with the flight styles of the birds: F. tinnunculus hovers and its primaries might therefore withstand large mechanical forces. A. nisus has often to change its flight directions during hunting and perhaps needs its alulae for this maneuvers, and in F. peregrinus, the base of the tail feathers might need a high stiffness during breaking after diving

Early Gender Differences in Self-Regulation and Academic Achievement

This study examined gender differences in self-regulation in the fall and spring of kindergarten and their connection to gender differences in 5 areas of early achievement: applied problems (math), general knowledge, letter-word identification, expressive vocabulary, and sound awareness. Behavioral self-regulation was measured using both an objective direct measure (N = 268; Head-Toes-Knees-Shoulders task) and, for a subsample of children, a teacher report of classroom self-regulatory behavior (n = 156; Child Behavior Rating Scale). Results showed that girls outperformed boys in both assessments. Although gender differences in self-regulation were clear, no significant gender differences were found on the 5 academic achievement outcomes, as measured by the Woodcock-Johnson III Tests of Achievement. Self-regulation consistently predicted math and sound awareness, although links were stronger with the direct measure as compared with teacher reports. Implications for understanding the role of gender and self-regulation in early and later academic achievement and the role of self-regulation in particular areas of achievement are discussed

A Structured Observation of Behavioral Self-Regulation and Its Contribution to Kindergarten Outcomes

The authors examined a new assessment of behavioral regulation and contributions to achievement and teacher-rated classroom functioning in a sample (N = 343) of kindergarteners from 2 geographical sites in the United States. Behavioral regulation was measured with the Head-Toes-Knees-Shoulders (HTKS) task, a structured observation requiring children to perform the opposite of a dominant response to 4 different oral commands. Results revealed considerable variability in HTKS scores. Evidence for construct validity was found in positive correlations with parent ratings of attentional focusing and inhibitory control and teacher ratings of classroom behavioral regulation. Hierarchical linear modeling indicated that higher levels of behavioral regulation in the fall predicted stronger levels of achievement in the spring and better teacher-rated classroom self-regulation (all ps \u3c .01) but not interpersonal skills. Evidence for domain specificity emerged, in which gains in behavioral regulation predicted gains in mathematics but not in language and literacy over the kindergarten year (p \u3c .01) after site, child gender, and other background variables were controlled. Discussion focuses on the importance of behavioral regulation for successful adjustment to the demands of kindergarten

Self-regulation and academic achievement in the transition to school

Psychology, [email protected]. Self-regulation and academic achievement in the transition to school 2 Significant advances in our understanding of children's cognitive and social development have occurred over the last three decades. Particularly with regard to those skills critical for academic success, research has revealed that multiple, interacting factors in the child, home, school, and larger sociocultural context all contribute to children's literacy, numeracy, language and social skills starting early in life and continuing throughout the school years (Morrison, Bachman & Connor, 2005). One factor, self-regulation, has surfaced recently as a crucial skill which uniquely predicts children's early school success. Poor self-regulation has been linked to high rates of expulsion, most dramatically in preschool classrooms (Gilliam & Shahar, 2006). Self-regulation refers to a complex of acquired, intentional skills involved in controlling, directing, and planning one's cognitions, emotions, and behavior In investigations beyond the classroom, scientists from a broad range of perspectives have converged on the centrality of successful self-regulation as a marker of adaptive development. Findings demonstrate, at an emerging level of specificity, how biological and neurological processes interact with psychological and experiential factors to determine how children regulate themselves in a given setting. Biological factors such as temperament, or an individual's predisposed reactivity and regulation of reactions to stimuli, underpin these additive and interactive processes. Self-regulation also develops through early experiences and social interactions, where caregivers and other significant individuals structure and shape children's trajectories In this chapter, we examine self-regulation and its role in academic development, focusing on the transition to formal schooling. We posit that adaptive development depends upon children's ability to manage their reactions and specifically, their task-related behaviors in the school context. Moreover, successfully self-regulating depends upon environmental influences Self-regulation and academic achievement in the transition to school 3 and interactions with others as well as child factors and predispositions. We focus on the construct of behavioral self-regulation, which is closely aligned with executive function, and which we define as the execution and manifestation of cognitive processes in overt behavior. Remembering and using information, attending to and understanding what others are saying, directing motor actions, and persisting toward goals are all indicators of adaptive behavioral regulation Our goals in the chapter are to examine behavioral regulation in the context of early childhood and the transition to school, elucidating how children's skills contribute to achievement. First, we demonstrate links between behavioral regulation and academic achievement prior to formal schooling and throughout elementary school; second, we summarize evidence on the relations between behavioral regulation and emotion regulation; third, we discuss individual differences and proximal influences on regulatory skill growth; fourth, we explore risk factors in the school setting important for the development of behavioral regulation. We end the chapter with practical implications and suggestions for future research. Behavioral Regulation and Academic Achievement Multiple underlying cognitive skills are involved in overt behavioral regulation. This complex of cognitive processes involves processing and manipulating stimuli (working memory); inhibiting automatic reactions to stimuli while initiating unnatural yet adaptive reactions (inhibitory control); and managing one's attention to appropriate stimuli, including resisting distraction and shifting tasks when necessary (attentional or cognitive flexibility). Evidence has linked these individual cognitive components to achievement prior to formal schooling These studies demonstrate that performing well on tasks requiring focused, vigilant attention; remembering multiple pieces of information; and inhibiting automatic actions to activate non-automatic responses predict higher levels of early achievement. As such, these individual cognitive components comprise a critical aspect of school readiness. The construct of executive function, widely used in the neuropsychological and cognitive literatures, refers to these multiple components operating together Self-regulation and academic achievement in the transition to school 5 Kindergarten teachers agree that similar skills -like following directions, paying attention, and working independently -while critical for school success, are deficient in many children A follow-up study in kindergarten used a more complex version of the HTT, called HeadToes-Knees-Shoulders (HTKS). This version builds on the HTT by requiring children to remember and respond to four (vs. two) different behavioral commands in conflict with the correct response (Ponitz, McClelland, Matthews, & Morrison, in press). Findings revealed that stronger levels of behavioral regulation in the fall predict higher fall and spring levels of mathematics, literacy, and vocabulary skills, as well as teacher-rated classroom behavioral regulation. Behavioral regulation gains also predicted mathematics gains (controlling for fall mathematics levels). Self-regulation and academic achievement in the transition to school 6 Multiple explanations may be offered for the consistent association between behavioral regulation tasks and academic success: first, they require executive function, which is a strong predictor of cognitive ability and academic performance Undoubtedly, executive function and behavioral regulation overlap -indeed, it is fair to ask whether both terms are necessary. To indicate the manifestation of multiple cognitive processes in overt behavior, we use the higher-order term behavioral regulation instead of executive function Though studies using traditional executive function measures along with behavioral regulation Self-regulation and academic achievement in the transition to school 7 assessments are rare, correlations among executive function measures and behavioral outcomes that have been documented are modest Providing further impetus to understand the development and effective measurement of behavioral regulation, or "executive function in context," is mounting evidence establishing that behavioral regulation contributes significant, unique variance to children's academic achievement and growth trajectories between preschool years, elementary, middle school, and even to high school. In one study following children to middle school, kindergarten behavioral regulation (as part of a broader learning-related skills construct measured via teacher report) predicted reading and math achievement between kindergarten and sixth grade, and growth in literacy and math from kindergarten to second grade Intersection of Emotion and Behavioral Regulation Children's self-regulation extends to managing their emotions as well Theoretical efforts (e.g., Blair, 2002) have sought to identify conceptual and empirical relations between emotional and behavioral regulation (and its underlying executive processes). For example, Blair notes that stronger negative emotional reactions (e.g., anger and anxiety) may impede children's ability to regulate their behavior in school settings where they need to deploy attention and persist in their work. Sources of Influence We distinguish among child factors, originating and measured within the child, and external factors, originating and measured in the child's environment. Throughout, we note how individual factors interrelate with environmental influences in their associations with selfregulation. We consider biological findings first, then parenting, and then move to a discussion of the emerging evidence on the role of schooling in the development of self-regulation. Child and Family Factors Brain and biological development. Early work seemed to suggest that higher-order skills underlying executive function did not really emerge until at least pre-adolescence (Golden, 1981). At present, it is clear that executive skills emerge early in life and grow steadily through at least early adolescence, with this position corroborated by evidence from neurological research These processes together contribute to a child's regulatory functioning In a recent review of findings from brain research, Lewis and Todd (2007) suggest that optimal regulation means the coordination of activation in different areas of the brain. Studies indicate that after processing emotional stimuli, our brains then engage areas associated with cognitive and attentional tasks (e.g., the anterior cingulate cortex or ACC) to manage emotional reaction. For example, heightened amygdala activity -a site commonly linked to the processing of emotional information -is followed by prefrontal cortex activity to regulate the amygdala. Thus, in general, recent trends have been to move away from pitting emotion regulation against cognitive regulatory skills (Zelazo et al., 2002), toward a conceptualization of these two sets of processes as interactive and reciprocally regulating. This argument parallels our claim that adaptive behavior in school depends not just on children's overall emotional reactivity, but on managing extreme reactions through directing their attention and ultimate behavior. The theme of achieving an optimal balance of reactions and regulation of those reactions is further reflected in research on temperament, another child factor implicated in self-regulation. Temperament. How a child reacts and regulates his or her reactions has biological origins in a construct known as temperament, which presages later personality tendencies As shown in brain research with adults, the anterior attentional systems underlie children's effortful control, which predicts both emotional and behavioral regulation Parent-child attachment. Regulation of distress, attention, and behavior does not emerge in isolation; caregivers are immensely important in helping children learn to regulate themselves. Caregivers -most often parents -are the infants' first indicators about the world. Through their actions, reactions, and interactions, parents help children learn whether the world is generally a safe, consistent place that can be reliably affected by signaling for help, distress, or happiness; or Self-regulation and academic achievement in the transition to school 12 whether the world is a scary, unpredictable place where one's actions go unnoticed. Parents who match their infants' signals with appropriate levels of help and soothing when the infant is distressed, or positive affect when the infant is happy, are more likely to develop a secure attachment with their child Parenting styles. As infants become toddlers with a will of their own, parenting behaviors to discipline or control their child's misbehavior add to factors contributing to the development of self-regulation. Studies show that authoritative parenting styles characterized by maintaining consistency, reasoning with the child about discipline decisions, and supporting the child's autonomy are linked with stronger behavioral regulation Self-regulation and academic achievement in the transition to school 13 School Factors So far we have identified the importance of behavioral regulation for academic achievement, described how being able to direct attention is important for regulating emotional responses and subsequent behavior, and shown the role of biological and parenting behaviors in whether children appropriate regulatory strategies. The next section focuses more squarely on behavioral regulation situated within early school settings. Child factors interacting with early school experiences. Similar to themes from parentchild research, children's behavioral regulation in school depends upon multiple factors, including children's prior characteristics and experiences as well as characteristics of the classroom. For example, in one study, kindergarteners with poor parent-rated inhibitory control were rated with more difficulty adjusting to the classroom by their teachers. Furthermore, those with low inhibitory control, whose parents also reported lax parenting behaviors (e.g., letting their kindergartener decide what to eat and when to go to bed) had the most difficulty adjusting. Lax parenting had no relation with adjustment for children with strong inhibitory control (Nathanson, Rimm-Kaufman, & Brock, in press). Another study used observational measures to classify participants as socially bold or wary, where bold infants showed little distress at the stranger's appearance, and wary children tended to cry, or look worriedly at their mothers These studies highlight the role of child factors like temperament in school functioning and demonstrate how they interact with the environmental context. Together, research suggests that caregivers including preschool providers contribute to children's developing behavioral regulation directly and through complex, yet systematic, interactions with child factors. In general, the literature suggests that providing a secure base, communicating consistent expectations for behavior, and helping children develop their own regulatory strategies without being didactic or directive, are associated with development of successful self-regulation. This conclusion dovetails nicely with theoretical work on the development of self-regulation, emphasizing the transition from "other" regulation by adults to eventually being able to control one's own actions and reactions Observational studies of classroom factors. In addition to teacher sensitivity and responsiveness, observational studies demonstrate that teachers who provide organizational information about classroom rules, procedures, and activities have students with strong behavioral regulation A separate child by classroom interaction emerged in a study of chaos in preschool settings; boys but not girls in chaotic, disorganized settings exhibited lower levels of behavioral regulation than boys in well-organized settings Self-regulation and academic achievement in the transition to school 16 Experimental and quasi-experimental evidence. A second line of work using experiments and quasi-experiments complements naturalistic studies suggesting that schooling-related experiences can affect children's behavioral regulation The extent to which skills taught in the laboratory transfer to real-world settings has been less clear, but recent efforts to develop classroom-based interventions are encouraging. In a quasi-experiment, Rimm-Kaufman and her colleagues measured the effects of the Responsive Classroom Approach (RC; Elliot, 1995) which is a teacher intervention aimed at creating a sense of community within the classroom, establishing and maintaining rules and consequences, Self-regulation and academic achievement in the transition to school 17 enhancing student independence, and minimizing problem behaviors. Students in RC settings exhibited better social skills, decreased problem behaviors, and higher academic performanc

Investigating the links between the subcomponents of executive function and academic achievement: A cross-cultural analysis of Chinese and American preschoolers

Little is known about how components of executive function (EF) jointly and uniquely predict different aspects of academic achievement and how this may vary across cultural contexts. In the current study, 119 Chinese and 139 American preschoolers were tested on a battery of EF tasks (i.e., inhibition, working memory, and attentional control) as well as academic achievement tasks (i.e., reading and mathematics). Results demonstrate that although working memory performance in both cultures was comparable, Chinese children outperformed American children on inhibition and attentional control tasks. In addition, the relation between components of EF and achievement was similar in the two countries. Working memory uniquely predicted academic achievement, with some intriguing patterns in regard to tasks requiring complex processing. Inhibition uniquely predicted counting but did not uniquely predict calculation. Attentional control predicted most aspects of achievement uniformly and was the most robust predictor for reading in both countries. In sum, the data provide insight into both cultural variability and consistency in the development of EF during early childhood. (C) 2010 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved

Keeping their attention: Classroom practices associated with behavioral engagement in first grade mathematics classes in China and the United States

This study investigated variation in students' behavioral engagement across mathematics classes in China and the United States. Student behavioral engagement was examined along with two aspects of the classroom (group size and teacher instructions given about classroom behavior). Video observational data were collected and coded over 1051 time intervals in 35-minute mathematics sessions in Chinese classrooms (n = 8) and comparable American classrooms (n = 7). Latent growth analyses revealed that overall, behavioral engagement declined over time, although the drop-off was dramatically sharper in American classrooms relative to Chinese classrooms. In addition, larger group size and the timing of teacher instructions (given before versus after the behavior) were significantly associated with increased engagement. This study revealed compelling cultural differences as well as patterns in student and teacher behaviors associated with students engaging in on-task behaviors in the classroom. Implications for ways to promote effective classroom behavior are discussed.This study investigated variation in students' behavioral engagement across mathematics classes in China and the United States. Student behavioral engagement was examined along with two aspects of the classroom (group size and teacher instructions given about classroom behavior). Video observational data were collected and coded over 1051 time intervals in 35-minute mathematics sessions in Chinese classrooms (n = 8) and comparable American classrooms (n = 7). Latent growth analyses revealed that overall, behavioral engagement declined over time, although the drop-off was dramatically sharper in American classrooms relative to Chinese classrooms. In addition, larger group size and the timing of teacher instructions (given before versus after the behavior) were significantly associated with increased engagement. This study revealed compelling cultural differences as well as patterns in student and teacher behaviors associated with students engaging in on-task behaviors in the classroom. Implications for ways to promote effective classroom behavior are discussed. (C) 2009 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved