Characterization of the Endonuclease and ATP-dependent Flap Endo/Exonuclease of Dna2

Two processes, DNA replication and DNA damage repair, are key to maintaining genomic fidelity. The Dna2 enzyme lies at the heart of both of these processes, acting in conjunction with flap endonuclease 1 and replication protein A in DNA lagging strand replication and with BLM/Sgs1 and MRN/X in double strand break repair. In vitro, Dna2 helicase and flap endo/exonuclease activities require an unblocked 5′ single-stranded DNA end to unwind or cleave DNA. In this study we characterize a Dna2 nuclease activity that does not require, and in fact can create, 5′ single-stranded DNA ends. Both endonuclease and flap endo/exonuclease are abolished by the Dna2-K677R mutation, implicating the same active site in catalysis. In addition, we define a novel ATP-dependent flap endo/exonuclease activity, which is observed only in the presence of Mn^(2+). The endonuclease is blocked by ATP and is thus experimentally distinguishable from the flap endo/exonuclease function. Thus, Dna2 activities resemble those of RecB and AddAB nucleases even more closely than previously appreciated. This work has important implications for understanding the mechanism of action of Dna2 in multiprotein complexes, where dissection of enzymatic activities and cofactor requirements of individual components contributing to orderly and precise execution of multistep replication/repair processes depends on detailed characterization of each individual activity

DNA end resection by Dna2–Sgs1–RPA and its stimulation by Top3–Rmi1 and Mre11–Rad50–Xrs2

The repair of DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) by homologous recombination requires processing of broken ends. For repair to start, the DSB must first be resected to generate a 3′-single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) overhang, which becomes a substrate for the DNA strand exchange protein, Rad51 (ref. 1). Genetic studies have implicated a multitude of proteins in the process, including helicases, nucleases and topoisomerases. Here we biochemically reconstitute elements of the resection process and reveal that it requires the nuclease Dna2, the RecQ-family helicase Sgs1 and the ssDNA-binding protein replication protein-A (RPA). We establish that Dna2, Sgs1 and RPA constitute a minimal protein complex capable of DNA resection in vitro. Sgs1 helicase unwinds the DNA to produce an intermediate that is digested by Dna2, and RPA stimulates DNA unwinding by Sgs1 in a species-specific manner. Interestingly, RPA is also required both to direct Dna2 nucleolytic activity to the 5′-terminated strand of the DNA break and to inhibit 3′ to 5′ degradation by Dna2, actions that generate and protect the 3′-ssDNA overhang, respectively. In addition to this core machinery, we establish that both the topoisomerase 3 (Top3) and Rmi1 complex and the Mre11–Rad50–Xrs2 complex (MRX) have important roles as stimulatory components. Stimulation of end resection by the Top3–Rmi1 heterodimer and the MRX proteins is by complex formation with Sgs1 (refs 5, 6), which unexpectedly stimulates DNA unwinding. We suggest that Top3–Rmi1 and MRX are important for recruitment of the Sgs1–Dna2 complex to DSBs. Our experiments provide a mechanistic framework for understanding the initial steps of recombinational DNA repair in eukaryotes

The extent of error-prone replication-restart by homologous recombination is controlled by Exo1 and checkpoint proteins

Genetic instability, a hallmark of cancer, can occur when the replication machinery encounters a barrier. The intra-S phase checkpoint maintains stalled replication forks in a replication-competent configuration by phosphorylating replisome components and DNA repair proteins to prevent forks from catastrophically collapsing. Here we report a novel Chk1- and Cds1Chk2-independent function for Rad3ATR, the core S. pombe checkpoint sensor kinase: Rad3ATR regulates the association of recombination factors with collapsed forks thus limiting their genetic instability. We further reveal antagonistic roles for Rad3ATR and the 9-1-1 clamp: Rad3ATR restrains MRN- and Exo1-dependent resection while the 9-1-1 complex promotes Exo1 activity. Interestingly the MRN complex, but not its nuclease activity, promotes resection and the subsequent association of recombination factors at collapsed forks. The biological significance of this regulation is revealed by the observation that Rad3ATR prevents Exo1-dependent genome instability upstream a collapsed fork without affecting the efficiency of recombination-mediated replication-restart. We propose the interplay between Rad3ATR and the 9-1-1 clamp functions to fine-tune the balance between the need for recovery of replication via recombination and the risk of increased genome instability

The Ku Heterodimer and the Metabolism of Single-Ended DNA Double-Strand Breaks

Single-ended double-strand breaks (DSBs) are a common form of spontaneous DNA break, generated when the replisome encounters a discontinuity in the DNA template. Given their prevalence, understanding the mechanisms governing the fate(s) of single-ended DSBs is important. We describe the influence of the Ku heterodimer and Mre11 nuclease activity on processing of single-ended DSBs. Separation-of-function alleles of yku70 were derived that phenocopy Ku deficiency with respect to single-ended DSBs but remain proficient for NHEJ. The Ku mutants fail to regulate Exo1 activity, and bypass the requirement for Mre11 nuclease activity in the repair ofcamptothecin-induced single-ended DSBs. Ku mutants exhibited reduced affinity for DNA ends, manifest as both reduced end engagement and enhanced probability of diffusing inward on linear DNA. This study reveals an interplay between Ku and Mre11 in the metabolism of single-ended DSBsthat is distinct from repair pathway choice at double-ended DSBs

Mapping replication dynamics in Trypanosoma brucei reveals a link with telomere transcription and antigenic variation

Survival of Trypanosoma brucei depends upon switches in its protective Variant Surface Glycoprotein (VSG) coat by antigenic variation. VSG switching occurs by frequent homologous recombination, which is thought to require locus-specific initiation. Here, we show that a RecQ helicase, RECQ2, acts to repair DNA breaks, including in the telomeric site of VSG expression. Despite this, RECQ2 loss does not impair antigenic variation, but causes increased VSG switching by recombination, arguing against models for VSG switch initiation through direct generation of a DNA double strand break (DSB). Indeed, we show DSBs inefficiently direct recombination in the VSG expression site. By mapping genome replication dynamics, we reveal that the transcribed VSG expression site is the only telomeric site that is early replicating – a differential timing only seen in mammal-infective parasites. Specific association between VSG transcription and replication timing reveals a model for antigenic variation based on replication-derived DNA fragility

Analysis of MRE11's function in the 5′→3′ processing of DNA double-strand breaks

The resection of DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) into 3′ single-strand tails is the initiating step of homology-dependent repair pathways. A key player in this process is the MRE11-RAD50-NBS1 complex, but its contribution to and mechanistic role in resection are not well understood. In this study, we took advantage of the Xenopus egg extract system to address these questions. We found that depletion of MRE11 caused a dramatic inhibition of 5′-resection, even for the first nucleotide at the 5′-end. Depletion of Xenopus CtIP also inhibited 5′-strand resection, but this inhibition could be alleviated by excess MRN. Both MRE11 and CtIP could be bypassed by a DNA that carried a 3′-ss-tail. Finally, using purified proteins, we found that MRN could stimulate both the WRN-DNA2-RPA pathway and the EXO1 pathway of resection. These findings provide important insights into the function of MRE11 in 5′-strand resection

Phosphorylation of Exo1 modulates homologous recombination repair of DNA double-strand breaks

DNA double-strand break (DSB) repair via the homologous recombination pathway is a multi-stage process, which results in repair of the DSB without loss of genetic information or fidelity. One essential step in this process is the generation of extended single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) regions at the break site. This ssDNA serves to induce cell cycle checkpoints and is required for Rad51 mediated strand invasion of the sister chromatid. Here, we show that human Exonuclease 1 (Exo1) is required for the normal repair of DSBs by HR. Cells depleted of Exo1 show chromosomal instability and hypersensitivity to ionising radiation (IR) exposure. We find that Exo1 accumulates rapidly at DSBs and is required for the recruitment of RPA and Rad51 to sites of DSBs, suggesting a role for Exo1 in ssDNA generation. Interestingly, the phosphorylation of Exo1 by ATM appears to regulate the activity of Exo1 following resection, allowing optimal Rad51 loading and the completion of HR repair. These data establish a role for Exo1 in resection of DSBs in human cells, highlighting the critical requirement of Exo1 for DSB repair via HR and thus the maintenance of genomic stability

Interplay of Mre11 Nuclease with Dna2 plus Sgs1 in Rad51-Dependent Recombinational Repair

The Mre11/Rad50/Xrs2 complex initiates IR repair by binding to the end of a double-strand break, resulting in 5′ to 3′ exonuclease degradation creating a single-stranded 3′ overhang competent for strand invasion into the unbroken chromosome. The nuclease(s) involved are not well understood. Mre11 encodes a nuclease, but it has 3′ to 5′, rather than 5′ to 3′ activity. Furthermore, mutations that inactivate only the nuclease activity of Mre11 but not its other repair functions, mre11-D56N and mre11-H125N, are resistant to IR. This suggests that another nuclease can catalyze 5′ to 3′ degradation. One candidate nuclease that has not been tested to date because it is encoded by an essential gene is the Dna2 helicase/nuclease. We recently reported the ability to suppress the lethality of a dna2Δ with a pif1Δ. The dna2Δ pif1Δ mutant is IR-resistant. We have determined that dna2Δ pif1Δ mre11-D56N and dna2Δ pif1Δ mre11-H125N strains are equally as sensitive to IR as mre11Δ strains, suggesting that in the absence of Dna2, Mre11 nuclease carries out repair. The dna2Δ pif1Δ mre11-D56N triple mutant is complemented by plasmids expressing Mre11, Dna2 or dna2K1080E, a mutant with defective helicase and functional nuclease, demonstrating that the nuclease of Dna2 compensates for the absence of Mre11 nuclease in IR repair, presumably in 5′ to 3′ degradation at DSB ends. We further show that sgs1Δ mre11-H125N, but not sgs1Δ, is very sensitive to IR, implicating the Sgs1 helicase in the Dna2-mediated pathway

DNA resection in eukaryotes: deciding how to fix the break

DNA double-strand breaks are repaired by different mechanisms, including homologous recombination and nonhomologous end-joining. DNA-end resection, the first step in recombination, is a key step that contributes to the choice of DSB repair. Resection, an evolutionarily conserved process that generates single-stranded DNA, is linked to checkpoint activation and is critical for survival. Failure to regulate and execute this process results in defective recombination and can contribute to human disease. Here, I review recent findings on the mechanisms of resection in eukaryotes, from yeast to vertebrates, provide insights into the regulatory strategies that control it, and highlight the consequences of both its impairment and its deregulation

Mechanistic analysis of Xenopus EXO1's function in 5′-strand resection at DNA double-strand breaks

The processing of DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) into 3′ single-stranded tails is the first step of homology-dependent DSB repair. A key player in this process is the highly conserved eukaryotic exonuclease 1 (EXO1), yet its precise mechanism of action has not been rigorously determined. To address this issue, we reconstituted 5′-strand resection in cytosol derived from unfertilized interphase eggs of the frog Xenopus laevis. Xenopus EXO1 (xEXO1) was found to display strong 5′→3′ dsDNA exonuclease activity but no significant ssDNA exonuclease activity. Depletion of xEXO1 caused significant inhibition of 5′ strand resection. Co-depletion of xEXO1 and Xenopus DNA2 (xDNA2) showed that these two nucleases act in parallel pathways and by distinct mechanisms. While xDNA2 acts on ssDNA unwound mainly by the Xenopus Werner syndrome protein (xWRN), xEXO1 acts directly on dsDNA. Furthermore, xEXO1 and xWRN are required for both the initiation stage and the extension stage of resection. These results reveal important novel information on the mechanism of 5′-strand resection in eukaryotes