Conjuncts in Nineteenth-Century English: Diachronic Development and Genre Diversity

This is the author's accepted manuscript. Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2014This article explores the use of connective adverbials or conjuncts (e.g. therefore, on the other hand, firstly) in nineteenth-century English. Drawing on A Corpus of Nineteenth-Century English (CONCE), the study focuses on charting change over time and variation among different genres, and considers the distribution of various semantic types (e.g. contrastive, resultive) as well as individual conjuncts and author styles. We show that nineteenth-century English displays considerable genre differentiation in the use of conjuncts, both in terms of frequency and semantic types of conjuncts employed. Within these larger trends, patterns are also evident for individual conjuncts (e.g. now, therefore, so) and individual authors (e.g. in Letters). Science writing, in particular, reveals a drastic increase in conjuncts (in nearly all semantic types), which sets it apart from other genres. This suggests that the conjunct-heavy style of academic writing that has been attested in studies of Present-Day English was established in the nineteenth century. On a more general level, this result underlines the importance of considering formal genres when charting language change, as they may be in the forefront of the formation of new linguistic patterns that are unique to written texts. The article also contributes to our growing understanding of Late Modern English syntax

Beyond aspect: will be -ing and shall be -ing

This article discusses the synchronic status and diachronic development of will be -ing and shall be -ing (as in I’ll be leaving at noon).2 Although available since at least Middle English, the constructions did not establish a significant foothold in standard English until the twentieth century. Both types are also more prevalent in British English (BrE) than American English (AmE). We argue that in present-day usage will/shall be -ing are aspectually underspecified: instances that clearly construe a situation as future-in-progress are in the minority. Similarly, although volition-neutrality has been identified as a key feature of will/shall be -ing, it is important to take account of other, generally richer meanings and associations, notably ‘future-as-matter-of-course’ (Leech 2004), ‘already-decided future’ (Huddleston & Pullum et al. 2002) and non-agentivity. Like volition-neutrality, these characteristics appear to be relevant not only in contemporary use, but also in their historical expansion. We show that the construction has evolved from progressive aspect towards more subjectivised evidential meaning

Rapsolja- användning, kemisk sammansättning och odlingsfaktorer

Genom litteraturstudien undersöktes rapsoljans kemiska sammansättning och faktorer som påverkar sammansättningen av rapsfröet och rapsoljan under odling. Raps (Brassica napus) tillhör Brassicaceae och är en diploid korsning mellan kålrot (B. oleracea) och rybs (B. rapa). Vid vegetativ fas bildas blad och pålroten etableras. Avkastningspotentialen bestäms under blomningen då självbefruktning och befruktning genom pollinerande insekter sker. Under fröfyllnadsfasen formas den kemiska sammansättningen i rapsfröet (40-45 % olja, 20 % protein, mindre mängder fenoliska föreningar och glukosinolater). Rapsodlingen anpassas till lokala odlingsmetoder. Vår- och höstvarianter odlas vart 4:e-6:e år. I södra Sverige odlas raps genom direktsådd eller konventionell odlingsmetod och skördas genom direkttröskning eller tröskning efter strängläggning. Växtföljder som inkluderar raps medför fördelar (minskat skadedjurstryck, minskade patogener och ökad avkastning för efterföljande gröda). Sveriges medelavkastning räknas internationellt till de högre. I början av oljeväxtodlingen odlades raps för industriella ändamål. Under slutet av 1900-talet ökade efterfrågan på rapsolja till humankonsumtion och rapsodlingen i världen ökade kraftigt. Eftersom de ätbara sorterna innehöll höga halter av erukasyra och glukosinolater förädlades de till sorten (canola) med lägre halter pga. oro för hälsoeffekter för människan. Idag finns flera vegetabiliska oljor där sojabönor, oljepalm och canola utgör de viktigaste. Rapsoljans användningsområde är brett med applikationer inom livsmedelsbranschen (t ex. ren matolja och ingrediens i matfettsblandningar) och inom industrin (t ex. dieselbränsle och smörjolja). Globalt är rapsolja en stor handelsvara. Rapsolja består av triacylglyceroler (92-99 %) och fosfolipider (ca 3 %). Artonkolsfettsyror utgör hela 95 % av de totala fettsyrorna, där oljesyra dominerar (52-64 %). De essentiella fettsyrorna linolsyra (10,5-22,8 %) och α-linolensyra (8,1–12,1 %) utgör en väsentlig andel i fettsyrasammansättningen. Rapsolja innehåller relativt låga halter mättade fettsyror, höga halter enkelomättade fettsyror och höga halter fleromättade fettsyror. Oljan innehåller även vissa mikronutrienter som tokoferoler (företrädelsevis α- och γ-tokoferol), fytosteroler (främst β-sitosterol, campesterol och brassicasterol), karotenoider, polyfenoler och koenzym Q10/Q9. Dessutom finns klorofyll, mineraler (främst fosfor, kalcium och svavel) samt sedimentbildande komponenter (framförallt vax-estrar) i oljan. Miljö- och genotypiska faktorer påverkar olje-, tokoferol-, fytosterol-, fenol-, glukosinolat-, svavel- och sedimenthalten samt fettsyrasammansättningen i rapsfröet. Oljehalten minskar vid låga vattenhalter särskilt under blomningsfasen. Temperaturen under mognad influerar fettsyraprofilen hos raps; linolensyra minskar vid stigande temperaturer. Fettsyraprofilen påverkas mer av klimatet än av sorten. Fettsyrasammansättningen påverkas av gödningstillförsel. Kvävegivan bör anpassas för att inte försämra kvalitetsparametrar. Idag sker forskning kring förädlade sorter med skräddarsydd fettsyrasammansättning för specifika ändamål. Betydelsen av rapsoljan och rapsodlingen är stor i ett internationellt- och nationellt perspektiv.The literature study examined the chemical composition of rapeseed oil and cultivation factors affecting the composition of rapeseed and oil. Rape (Brassica napus) in Brassicaceae is a diploid crossbreed between turnip (Brassica oleracea) and turnip rape (Brassica rapa). At vegetative stage leaves and taproot forms. Yield is set during flowering and flowers are self-fertilized and fertilized by pollinating insects. The chemical composition is formed at seed filling stage (40-45 % oil, 20 % protein, smaller amounts of phenolic compounds and glucosinolates). Rapeseed cultivation is adjusted to local methods. Spring/winter varieties are grown in crop rotations every 4-6 year. In Sweden rape is grown by direct drilling/conventional practice and is harvested through direct threshing/threshing after swathing. Crop rotations including rape cause advantages (increased yield for subsequent crop, decreased pests- and pathogens). The rapeseed yield in Sweden is amongst the higher in the world. In the beginning of oilseed cultivation, rapeseed was grown for industrial purposes. At the end of the 20th century the request of edible rapeseed oil was increased, cultivation was strongly extended. High amounts of erucic acid and glucosinolates in edible varieties led to worry about health effects in human, breeding provided a variety (canola) with lowered levels. Soya beans, oil palm and canola constitute the most important vegetable oils. The utilization range is wide with applications in the food business (e.g. cooking oil and ingredient) and in the industry (e.g. diesel-fuel and lubricant). Globally rapeseed oil is big merchandise. Rapeseed oil consists of triacylglyceroles (92-99 %) and phospholipids (ca 3 %). The octadecanoic acids constitute 95 % of the total fatty acids, where oleic acid dominates (52-64 %). The essential linoleic acid (10,5-22,8 %) and α-linolenic acid (8,1–12,1 %) constitute a considerable portion in the fatty acid composition. Rapeseed oil contains relatively low levels of saturated-, high amounts of monounsaturated- and high levels of polyunsaturated fatty acids. The oil contains some micronutrients such as tocopherols (α- and γ-tocopherol), phytosterols (β-sitosterol, campesterol and brassicasterol), carotenoids, polyphenols and coenzyme Q10/Q9. In addition chlorophylls, minerals (phosphorus, calcium and sulphur) and sediment compounds (wax esters) are present. Environment- and genotypic factors affect fatty acid composition, oil-, tocopherol-, phytosterol-, phenol-, glucosinolate-, sulphur- and sediment content in rapeseed. Oil content decreases at low water conditions particularly during flowering. Elevated temperature at ripening influences fatty acid profile in rape; linolenic acid decreases. The fatty acid profile is affected more by climate than by type. Fatty acid composition is affected by fertilization supply. Non-adjusted nitrogen rate can decrease oil quality. Today breeding-science is developing varieties with custom made fatty acid profiles for specific use. Rapeseed oil and rapeseed cultivation is important both internationally and nationally

Using Very Large Corpora to Teach Modern English (1500–1945)

This article describes the incorporation of a corpus-based research assignment in a 7.5-credit Master’s-level module on Early and Late Modern English. The design of the module as a whole as well as of the research assignment is discussed, and it is shown how this design tallies with intended learning outcomes based on Bloom’s revised taxonomy. I also suggest ways in which students with little previous experience of corpus-based research can be introduced to the use of very large corpora relatively quickly with the aid of, among other things, exercises and pre-recorded lectures. A key component of the research assignment concerns methodological desiderata such as ensuring recall and precision in corpus-based retrieval of historical features, operationalizing frequency appropriately, taking into account the influence of the genre parameter, being mindful of the limitations of the corpus used, and citing and evaluating secondary sources. Students learn about the value of these desiderata largely through data-driven learning before and during their work on the assignment; examples of how they have been addressed in individual papers are provided. Finally, the value of including empirical, corpus-based components in a historical course is discussed.

Clausal and phrasal coordination in recent American English

Several studies have shown that there is considerable cross-genre variation as regards what linguistic units tend to be coordinated by and. While literate, expository writing favors coordination of phrasal units such as noun phrases, coordinated units are more often clausal (e.g., main or subordinate clauses) in speech-related texts. This difference has been attested in studies that focus exclusively on coordination as well as in macro-level studies of co-variation among a large number of linguistic features. However, this register differentiation has increased over time: studies of Early and Late Modern English point to less pronounced differences among registers than those attested in the present-day language. This study fills a gap in research by considering data on coordination by and from the middle of the 20th century, a period that does not belong fully to either Late Modern or Present-Day English, and the late 20th and early 21st century, and thus ties diachronic and synchronic research on register variation in coordination together. We also examine language from films and television in order to complement historical findings for speech-related language with data on registers that arose in the 20th century

Learning the dance in the workingalliance : A qualitative study of social interactions within a staff group in a support organization

Det är viktigt att personalgrupper inom behandlings- och stödverksamheter präglas av positiva sociala interaktioner och lyckade ritualer för att uppfylla funktionalitet och effektivitet. Brist på positiva sociala interaktioner och lyckade ritualer riskerar att skapa en personalgrupp som präglas av oenighet och konflikter. Studien syftar således till att undersöka hur sociala interaktioner i en personalgrupp inom en stödverksamhet inverkar på det dagliga arbetet. Studien syftar även till att undersöka hur en positiv och funktionell personalgrupp skapas genom samspel mellan gruppmedlemmarna. Vidare diskuteras relationen mellan personalgruppens funktion och klienterna. Studien baseras på en kvalitativ forskningsmetod som omfattar fem intervjuer med personal inom en stödverksamhet. De teoretiska utgångspunkterna som används vid analys är Collins teori om sociala interaktioner och Bions gruppteori. Studiens resultat visar att personalen benämner olika faktorer som viktiga för en funktionell personalgrupp och att de även har delade meningar och känslor för personalgruppens funktion. Vidare visar studien att personalgruppen inom den studerade verksamheten inte arbetar enhetligt eller utifrån någon specifik teori eller metod. Detta kan således vara ett resultat av att gruppen präglas av misslyckade ritualer och mindre bra sociala interaktioner.It is important that staff groups within treatment and support organizations are characterized with positive social interactions and successful rituals in order to be functional and effective. A lack of these ingredients can create a group with disagreement and conflicts. This study aims to explore how the interactions and rituals affect the daily work within the staff group in a support organization. A second purpose is to explore how a positive and functional staff group is made easier through interaction between the members of the group. The relationship between the function of the staff group and the clients is also discussed. The study has a qualitative research approach and includes five interviews with staff within a support organization. The theoretical basis for the analysis is Collin’s interactions theory and Bion’s group theory. The result shows that the staff name different factors as important for the function of a staff group. The study also shows that the staff group doesn’t work uniformly or by any particular theory or method. This may be the result of that the group is characterized by failed rituals and less good interactions