Conjuncts in Nineteenth-Century English: Diachronic Development and Genre Diversity

This is the author's accepted manuscript. Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2014This article explores the use of connective adverbials or conjuncts (e.g. therefore, on the other hand, firstly) in nineteenth-century English. Drawing on A Corpus of Nineteenth-Century English (CONCE), the study focuses on charting change over time and variation among different genres, and considers the distribution of various semantic types (e.g. contrastive, resultive) as well as individual conjuncts and author styles. We show that nineteenth-century English displays considerable genre differentiation in the use of conjuncts, both in terms of frequency and semantic types of conjuncts employed. Within these larger trends, patterns are also evident for individual conjuncts (e.g. now, therefore, so) and individual authors (e.g. in Letters). Science writing, in particular, reveals a drastic increase in conjuncts (in nearly all semantic types), which sets it apart from other genres. This suggests that the conjunct-heavy style of academic writing that has been attested in studies of Present-Day English was established in the nineteenth century. On a more general level, this result underlines the importance of considering formal genres when charting language change, as they may be in the forefront of the formation of new linguistic patterns that are unique to written texts. The article also contributes to our growing understanding of Late Modern English syntax

Differences among variety samples of Avena strigosa regarding β-glucan, tocopherols, tocotrienols and avenanthramides

Oats (Avena spp.) is a cereal crop mainly used in food and feed applications. Com-mon oats (Avena sativa) has gained attention because of health supporting proper-ties and potential in reducing the risk of chronic diseases, related to its bioactive compounds β-glucan, tocopherols, tocotrienols and avenanthramides. The interest for other species has increased as they may be valuable in food applications due to their contents. Content variations in common oats is well known, but fairly un-known in other species. Previous research showed interesting properties of one relative, Avena strigosa which was investigated in the present study. Variations in the contents of β-glucan, tocopherols, tocotrienols and avenanthramides as well as the molecular weight distribution of β-glucan were studied among thirteen variety samples. Samples from two varieties were subjected to false malting (i.e. exclusion of sprouting) to evaluate effects. There was a significant difference among the samples regarding all studied bioactive compounds (p=0.000). The β-glucan content ranged between 1.9 and 6.3 % (w/w) and the average molecular weight between 1.59×106 and 2.43×106 g/mol. Among studied E-vitamers α-tocotrienol was the highest and varied between 7.4 and 60.0 µg/g DM. Other E-vitamers (α-tocopherol, β-tocotrienol and β-tocopherol) varied between 5.1 and 15.9, 1.3 and 7.2, 0.8 and 3.6 µg/g DM respectively. The main avenanthramides 2c, 2p, 2f and 2fd ranged between 11 and 352, 19 and 211, 7 and 435, from below detection limits to 112 nmol/g DM respectively. The main hydroxycinnamic acid was caffeic acid which varied between 17 and 134 nmol/g DM. The β-glucan content, the average molecular weights of β-glucan, the contents of avenanthramides and hydroxycinnamic acids were affected by false malting, while the contents of E-vitamers were unchanged. Generally, malting lead to a decrease in the content and in the average molecular weight of β-glucan, but caused a pronounced increase in mainly the lately eluted avenanthramides, 2pd and 2fd, especially in samples from one of the two varieties. Even though this study found similarities when comparing A. strigosa and A. sativa certain features were different. The importance of these differences can only be evaluated in human studies which investigate the differences in bioactivity. Further studies are needed to fully evaluate the variation among varieties of A. strigosa and to get a realistic picture of its true potential as a novel oat food crop. Factors to consider should though be the contents of several bioactive compounds and also the responses after processing like malting since the responses may differ between samples. A. strigosa is well worth to investigate further according to the present results.Havre (Avena spp.) är en spannmålsgröda som främst används som livsmedel och foder. Havre (Avena sativa) har uppmärksammats p.g.a. dess hälsobefrämjande egenskaper och potential att minska risken för kroniska sjukdomar relaterade till dess bioaktiva ämnen, speciellt β-glukaner, tokoferoler, tokotrienoler och avenantramider. Nyligen har även andra arter av havre uppmärksammats eftersom de möjligen kan vara värdefulla i livsmedel p.g.a. de höga halterna av hälsobefrämjande ämnen. Variation av de bioaktiva ämnena inom A. sativa är välkänt, medan variation inom andra havrearter är betydligt mindre studerat. Tidigare forskning visade intressanta egenskaper hos havrearten A. strigosa som undersöktes i denna studie. Variation av halterna av β-glukaner, tokoferoler, tokotrienoler och avenantramider samt β-glukanernas molekylviktsfördelning studerades i prover från tretton olika sorter. Prover från två sorter studerades även efter ”falsk groning” (dvs. groning som inhiberar utväxt av grodd) för att utvärdera effekterna. Studien visade en signifikant skillnad mellan proverna avseende de bioaktiva ämnena (p=0.000). β-Glukanhalten varierade mellan 1.9 och 6.3 % och medelmolekylvikten hos β-glukan mellan 1.59 och 2.43×106 g/mol. Bland de undersökta E-vitamererna var halten av α-tokotrienol högst och varierade mellan 7.4 och 60.0 µg/g TS. Andra E-vitamerer (α-tokoferol, β-tokotrienol och β-tokoferol) varierade mellan 5.1 och 15.9, 1.3 och 7.2 samt 0.8 och 3.6 µg/g TS. De dominerande avenantramiderna (2c, 2p, 2f och 2fd) varierade mellan 11 och 352 nmol/g TS, 19 och 211, 7 och 435 samt från under detektionsgränsen till 112 nmol/g TS. Den mest förekommande kanelsyran var kaffesyra som varierade mellan 17 och 134 nmol/g TS. β-Glukanhalten, medelmo-lekylvikten av β-glukaner, halterna av avenantramider och kanelsyror påverkades av falsk groning. Generellt sett, orsakade groningen en minskning av β-glukanhalten och medelmolekylvikten av β-glukan, medan halterna av E-vitamerer var oförändrade. Den falska groningen ledde däremot till en uttalad ökning av halterna av de sent eluerade avenantramiderna, 2pd och 2fd, främst i prover från en av de två sorterna. Även om denna studie fann likheter då A. strigosa jämfördes med A. sativa, så noterades även skillnader. Huruvida dessa skillnader är av betydelse eller ej kan bara fastställas genom humanstudier som utvärderar skillnader i bioaktivitet. Ytterligare studier behövs för att utvärdera sortvariationen inom A. strigosa så att en realistisk bild av dess potential att användas som en livsmedelsgröda kan tydliggöras. Att ta i beaktande är halterna av flera olika bioaktiva ämnen, men också effekterna av processer som groning eftersom både halterna och effekterna kan variera mellan olika prover. A. strigosa är väl värd att undersöka ytterligare enligt resultaten i denna studie

Beyond aspect: will be -ing and shall be -ing

This article discusses the synchronic status and diachronic development of will be -ing and shall be -ing (as in I’ll be leaving at noon).2 Although available since at least Middle English, the constructions did not establish a significant foothold in standard English until the twentieth century. Both types are also more prevalent in British English (BrE) than American English (AmE). We argue that in present-day usage will/shall be -ing are aspectually underspecified: instances that clearly construe a situation as future-in-progress are in the minority. Similarly, although volition-neutrality has been identified as a key feature of will/shall be -ing, it is important to take account of other, generally richer meanings and associations, notably ‘future-as-matter-of-course’ (Leech 2004), ‘already-decided future’ (Huddleston & Pullum et al. 2002) and non-agentivity. Like volition-neutrality, these characteristics appear to be relevant not only in contemporary use, but also in their historical expansion. We show that the construction has evolved from progressive aspect towards more subjectivised evidential meaning

Rapsolja- användning, kemisk sammansättning och odlingsfaktorer

Genom litteraturstudien undersöktes rapsoljans kemiska sammansättning och faktorer som påverkar sammansättningen av rapsfröet och rapsoljan under odling. Raps (Brassica napus) tillhör Brassicaceae och är en diploid korsning mellan kålrot (B. oleracea) och rybs (B. rapa). Vid vegetativ fas bildas blad och pålroten etableras. Avkastningspotentialen bestäms under blomningen då självbefruktning och befruktning genom pollinerande insekter sker. Under fröfyllnadsfasen formas den kemiska sammansättningen i rapsfröet (40-45 % olja, 20 % protein, mindre mängder fenoliska föreningar och glukosinolater). Rapsodlingen anpassas till lokala odlingsmetoder. Vår- och höstvarianter odlas vart 4:e-6:e år. I södra Sverige odlas raps genom direktsådd eller konventionell odlingsmetod och skördas genom direkttröskning eller tröskning efter strängläggning. Växtföljder som inkluderar raps medför fördelar (minskat skadedjurstryck, minskade patogener och ökad avkastning för efterföljande gröda). Sveriges medelavkastning räknas internationellt till de högre. I början av oljeväxtodlingen odlades raps för industriella ändamål. Under slutet av 1900-talet ökade efterfrågan på rapsolja till humankonsumtion och rapsodlingen i världen ökade kraftigt. Eftersom de ätbara sorterna innehöll höga halter av erukasyra och glukosinolater förädlades de till sorten (canola) med lägre halter pga. oro för hälsoeffekter för människan. Idag finns flera vegetabiliska oljor där sojabönor, oljepalm och canola utgör de viktigaste. Rapsoljans användningsområde är brett med applikationer inom livsmedelsbranschen (t ex. ren matolja och ingrediens i matfettsblandningar) och inom industrin (t ex. dieselbränsle och smörjolja). Globalt är rapsolja en stor handelsvara. Rapsolja består av triacylglyceroler (92-99 %) och fosfolipider (ca 3 %). Artonkolsfettsyror utgör hela 95 % av de totala fettsyrorna, där oljesyra dominerar (52-64 %). De essentiella fettsyrorna linolsyra (10,5-22,8 %) och α-linolensyra (8,1–12,1 %) utgör en väsentlig andel i fettsyrasammansättningen. Rapsolja innehåller relativt låga halter mättade fettsyror, höga halter enkelomättade fettsyror och höga halter fleromättade fettsyror. Oljan innehåller även vissa mikronutrienter som tokoferoler (företrädelsevis α- och γ-tokoferol), fytosteroler (främst β-sitosterol, campesterol och brassicasterol), karotenoider, polyfenoler och koenzym Q10/Q9. Dessutom finns klorofyll, mineraler (främst fosfor, kalcium och svavel) samt sedimentbildande komponenter (framförallt vax-estrar) i oljan. Miljö- och genotypiska faktorer påverkar olje-, tokoferol-, fytosterol-, fenol-, glukosinolat-, svavel- och sedimenthalten samt fettsyrasammansättningen i rapsfröet. Oljehalten minskar vid låga vattenhalter särskilt under blomningsfasen. Temperaturen under mognad influerar fettsyraprofilen hos raps; linolensyra minskar vid stigande temperaturer. Fettsyraprofilen påverkas mer av klimatet än av sorten. Fettsyrasammansättningen påverkas av gödningstillförsel. Kvävegivan bör anpassas för att inte försämra kvalitetsparametrar. Idag sker forskning kring förädlade sorter med skräddarsydd fettsyrasammansättning för specifika ändamål. Betydelsen av rapsoljan och rapsodlingen är stor i ett internationellt- och nationellt perspektiv.The literature study examined the chemical composition of rapeseed oil and cultivation factors affecting the composition of rapeseed and oil. Rape (Brassica napus) in Brassicaceae is a diploid crossbreed between turnip (Brassica oleracea) and turnip rape (Brassica rapa). At vegetative stage leaves and taproot forms. Yield is set during flowering and flowers are self-fertilized and fertilized by pollinating insects. The chemical composition is formed at seed filling stage (40-45 % oil, 20 % protein, smaller amounts of phenolic compounds and glucosinolates). Rapeseed cultivation is adjusted to local methods. Spring/winter varieties are grown in crop rotations every 4-6 year. In Sweden rape is grown by direct drilling/conventional practice and is harvested through direct threshing/threshing after swathing. Crop rotations including rape cause advantages (increased yield for subsequent crop, decreased pests- and pathogens). The rapeseed yield in Sweden is amongst the higher in the world. In the beginning of oilseed cultivation, rapeseed was grown for industrial purposes. At the end of the 20th century the request of edible rapeseed oil was increased, cultivation was strongly extended. High amounts of erucic acid and glucosinolates in edible varieties led to worry about health effects in human, breeding provided a variety (canola) with lowered levels. Soya beans, oil palm and canola constitute the most important vegetable oils. The utilization range is wide with applications in the food business (e.g. cooking oil and ingredient) and in the industry (e.g. diesel-fuel and lubricant). Globally rapeseed oil is big merchandise. Rapeseed oil consists of triacylglyceroles (92-99 %) and phospholipids (ca 3 %). The octadecanoic acids constitute 95 % of the total fatty acids, where oleic acid dominates (52-64 %). The essential linoleic acid (10,5-22,8 %) and α-linolenic acid (8,1–12,1 %) constitute a considerable portion in the fatty acid composition. Rapeseed oil contains relatively low levels of saturated-, high amounts of monounsaturated- and high levels of polyunsaturated fatty acids. The oil contains some micronutrients such as tocopherols (α- and γ-tocopherol), phytosterols (β-sitosterol, campesterol and brassicasterol), carotenoids, polyphenols and coenzyme Q10/Q9. In addition chlorophylls, minerals (phosphorus, calcium and sulphur) and sediment compounds (wax esters) are present. Environment- and genotypic factors affect fatty acid composition, oil-, tocopherol-, phytosterol-, phenol-, glucosinolate-, sulphur- and sediment content in rapeseed. Oil content decreases at low water conditions particularly during flowering. Elevated temperature at ripening influences fatty acid profile in rape; linolenic acid decreases. The fatty acid profile is affected more by climate than by type. Fatty acid composition is affected by fertilization supply. Non-adjusted nitrogen rate can decrease oil quality. Today breeding-science is developing varieties with custom made fatty acid profiles for specific use. Rapeseed oil and rapeseed cultivation is important both internationally and nationally

Using Very Large Corpora to Teach Modern English (1500–1945)

This article describes the incorporation of a corpus-based research assignment in a 7.5-credit Master’s-level module on Early and Late Modern English. The design of the module as a whole as well as of the research assignment is discussed, and it is shown how this design tallies with intended learning outcomes based on Bloom’s revised taxonomy. I also suggest ways in which students with little previous experience of corpus-based research can be introduced to the use of very large corpora relatively quickly with the aid of, among other things, exercises and pre-recorded lectures. A key component of the research assignment concerns methodological desiderata such as ensuring recall and precision in corpus-based retrieval of historical features, operationalizing frequency appropriately, taking into account the influence of the genre parameter, being mindful of the limitations of the corpus used, and citing and evaluating secondary sources. Students learn about the value of these desiderata largely through data-driven learning before and during their work on the assignment; examples of how they have been addressed in individual papers are provided. Finally, the value of including empirical, corpus-based components in a historical course is discussed.

Interactiondesign with paper and pencil

Publit är ett litet företag med stora ambitioner. Efter bara fyra år på marknaden servar man nu enmajoritet av de största svenska förlagen (och en lång rad mikroförlag) med e-boktjänster ochbehovstryck.Användaren får tillgång till Publits tjänster via en webbapplikation som i stora drag har tre vyer;analys, ekonomi och katalog. Den sistnämnda rymmer ett förlags utgivning av fysiska ochelektroniska böcker och låter användaren göra allt från att skanna en fysisk bok eller konvertera enPDF till e-bok, till att publicera sina böcker i en lång rad kanaler och välja priser ochaffärsmodeller.Publits katalogvy har en rad brister. Det har varit vår uppgift att fullt ut förstå och kartlägga dessa.Den processen har bedrivits i form av iterativt skissande varvat med design-kritik-möten.Resultatet kan ses i två perspektiv. För vår egen del består det av ett mycket stort antal skisser somillustrerar vår process. För Publits del består slutresultatet av ett fåtal relativt färdigadesignlösningar, snarare än skisser. Dessa kommer i stor utsträckning fungera som förlaga i arbetetmed att utveckla nästa generation av Publits katalogvy, ett arbete som beräknas påbörjas hösten2012 och troligtvis kommer pågå minst ett år.Publit is a small company with big ambitions. After only four years in the market services now amajority of the largest Swedish publishing houses (and a number of micro-publishers) with e-bookservices and print-on-demand.The user gets Publit’s services through a web application that has three views; analysis, economics,and directory. The latter holds a debenture issue of physical and electronic books and lets the userdo everything from scanning a physical book or convert a PDF to e-book, to publish their books in aseries of channels and choose prices and business models.Publit’s catalogue view has a number of limitations. It has been our task to fully understand andidentify them. The process has been conducted in the form of iterative sketching combined withdesign-criticism meetings.The result can be seen from two perspectives. For our own part, it consists of a large number ofsketches that illustrate our process. For Publit’s part is the end result of a few relatively completedesign solutions, rather than sketches. These will largely serve as a model in efforts to develop thenext generation of Publit’s catalouge view, work that is expected to begin in autumn 2012 and willprobably last at least a year.Keywords

Clausal and phrasal coordination in recent American English

Several studies have shown that there is considerable cross-genre variation as regards what linguistic units tend to be coordinated by and. While literate, expository writing favors coordination of phrasal units such as noun phrases, coordinated units are more often clausal (e.g., main or subordinate clauses) in speech-related texts. This difference has been attested in studies that focus exclusively on coordination as well as in macro-level studies of co-variation among a large number of linguistic features. However, this register differentiation has increased over time: studies of Early and Late Modern English point to less pronounced differences among registers than those attested in the present-day language. This study fills a gap in research by considering data on coordination by and from the middle of the 20th century, a period that does not belong fully to either Late Modern or Present-Day English, and the late 20th and early 21st century, and thus ties diachronic and synchronic research on register variation in coordination together. We also examine language from films and television in order to complement historical findings for speech-related language with data on registers that arose in the 20th century