La variabilité régionale du niveau de la mer

Au cours du XXème siècle, les mesures marégraphiques ont permis d'estimer la hausse du niveau de la mer global à 1.7 mm.a-1. Depuis deux décennies, les observations faites par les satellites altimétriques indiquent une hausse du niveau de la mer plus rapide, de 3.2 mm. a-1 sur la période 1993-2011. Grâce à leur couverture quasi-globale, les observations spatiales ont aussi révélé une forte variabilité régionale dans la hausse du niveau de la mer qui dépasse de beaucoup la hausse moyenne globale dans de nombreuses régions du globe. Cette composante régionale qui s'ajoute à la hausse globale pour donner le niveau de la mer total local, est essentielle dans l'étude des impacts de la hausse du niveau de la mer sur les régions côtières et les îles basses. Dans cette thèse, nous analysons les observations de la variabilité régionale de la hausse du niveau de la mer, nous proposons une reconstruction de cette variabilité régionale depuis 1950 (i.e. avant l'avènement de l'altimétrie spatiale) et nous étudions ses causes et ses origines. Tout d'abord, nous proposons une reconstruction de la variabilité régionale du niveau de la mer dans le passé (avant la période altimétrique) en combinant des données marégraphiques avec les structures spatiales propres de l'océan déduites des modèles d'océan. Cette méthode permet de reconstruire le niveau de la mer en 2 dimensions depuis 1950, sur la majeure partie du globe, avec une résolution proche de celle de l'altimétrie spatiale. Ensuite, nous appliquons la méthode de reconstruction pour estimer la variabilité régionale de la hausse du niveau de la mer passée dans trois régions sensibles au réchauffement climatique : le Pacifique tropical, la mer Méditerranée et l'océan Arctique. Nous en déduisons pour ces régions la hausse totale ( régionale plus moyenne globale) du niveau de la mer local au cours des dernières décennies. Pour les sites où l'on dispose de mesures du mouvement de la croûte terrestre, nous évaluons la hausse local du niveau de la mer relatif (i.e. hausse du niveau de la mer totale plus mouvement de la croûte local) depuis 1950. Le but est de permettre les études de l'impact local de la hausse du niveau de la mer aux échelles climatiques. Enfin, nous analysons l'origine de la variabilité régionale de la hausse du niveau de la mer pour déterminer si elle est due à l'activité anthropique ou si elle résulte de la variabilité naturelle du système climatique. Nous nous focalisons sur le Pacifque tropical qui est marqué par une très forte variabilité régionale de la hausse du niveau de la mer depuis 1993. Grâce a la reconstruction du niveau de la mer depuis 1950, nous montrons que cette variabilité régionale récente (17 dernières années) n'est pas stationnaire dans le temps mais qu'elle fluctue en lien avec une basse fréquence du mode de variabilité ENSO. Avec les modèles de climat du projet CMIP3, nous montrons de plus que cette variabilité régionale est essentiellement d'origine naturelle (variabilité interne du système climatique) et que l'impact anthropique y est trop faible pour l'instant pour y être détecté.Over the XXth century, tide gauge records indicate a rise in global sea level of 1.7 mm.a-1. For the past two decades, satellite altimetry data indicate a faster sea level rise of 3.2 mm.a-1 (period 1993-2011). Thanks to its global coverage, they also reveal a strong regional variability in sea level rise that is several times bigger than the global rise in many regions of the world. This regional signal, which must be added to the global sea level rise to compute the total sea level signal, is essential when assessing the potential impacts of sea level rise in coastal areas and low lying islands. In this thesis, we analyse the observed regional variability in sea level rise from satellite altimetry (since 1993), we propose a reconstruction of the past regional variability since 1950 (i.e. prior to altimetry) and we discuss its causes (thermal expansion of the ocean plus land ice loss) and origins (from natural or anthropogenic origin). First, we propose a reconstruction of the sea level variations for the past decades (before the altimetry era) by combining tide gauge records with the principal spatial structures of the ocean deduced from ocean general circulation models. This method enables to reconstruct the 2 dimensional sea level variations since 1950 with a spatial coverage and resolution similar to the satellite altimetry ones. In the second part of this thesis, the reconstruction method is applied to estimate the past regional variability in three regions which are particularly vulnerable to sea level rise: the tropical Pacific, the Mediterranean sea and the Arctic ocean. For each region, the reconstruction gives an estimation of the total (regional component plus global mean) 2-dimensional sea level rise over the past decades. For the sites where vertical crustal motion monitoring is available, we compute as well the total relative sea level (i.e. total sea level rise plus the local vertical crustal motion) since 1950. The objective is to provide estimates of the relative local sea level rise at climatic time scales to allow further studies on the coastal impacts of sea level rise. In the last part of this thesis, the question of the origins of the regional variability in sea level rise is addressed. We examine whether the regional variability in observed sea level rise since 1993 is a consequence of the anthropogenic activity or if it results essentially from the natural variability of the climate system. We focus on the Tropical Pacific where the regional variability in sea level rise is particularly strong since 1993. On the basis of the reconstruction of the sea level variations since 1950, we show that the recent regional variability in sea level rise observed by satellite (over the last 17 years) in this region is not stationnary. It fluctuates with time, following some low frequency of the ENSO climate mode of variability. With the CMIP3 climate models, we show that this regional variability is dominated by the natural variability of the climate system (essentially by the internal variability of the climate system) and that the signature of the anthropogenic activity is still too weak in this region to be detected

CNES Approaching Guidance Experiment within FFIORD

This article outlines the relative orbit control (guidance algorithm and its preliminary performance tests evaluation) that will be tested by the CNES Team on FFIORD (Formation Flying In Orbit Ranging Demonstration) onboard PRISMA mission. After a brief summary of the PRISMA mission context, the paper provides a full description of the rendezvous function involved in the approaching guidance experiment. This FFIORD onboard function is detailed in terms of on-board algorithmic method (basic algorithm and enhanced alternative), sensibility analysis used to construct maneuver plans and preliminary tests results

Regional distribution of steric and mass contributions to sea level changes

Póster presentado en EGU General Assembly 2010, celebrada en Viena (Austria), del 2 al 7 de mayo de 2010Peer Reviewe

Improving sea level simulation in Mediterranean regional climate models

For now, the question about future sea level change in the Mediterranean remains a challenge. Previous climate modelling attempts to estimate future sea level change in the Mediterranean did not meet a consensus. The low resolution of CMIP-type models prevents an accurate representation of important small scales processes acting over the Mediterranean region. For this reason among others, the use of high resolution regional ocean modelling has been recommended in literature to address the question of ongoing and future Mediterranean sea level change in response to climate change or greenhouse gases emissions. Also, it has been shown that east Atlantic sea level variability is the dominant driver of the Mediterranean variability at interannual and interdecadal scales. However, up to now, long-term regional simulations of the Mediterranean Sea do not integrate the full sea level information from the Atlantic, which is a substantial shortcoming when analysing Mediterranean sea level response. In the present study we analyse different approaches followed by state-of-the-art regional climate models to simulate Mediterranean sea level variability. Additionally we present a new simulation which incorporates improved information of Atlantic sea level forcing at the lateral boundary. We evaluate the skills of the different simulations in the frame of long-term hindcast simulations spanning from 1980 to 2012 analysing sea level variability from seasonal to multidecadal scales. Results from the new simulation show a substantial improvement in the modelled Mediterranean sea level signal. This confirms that Mediterranean mean sea level is strongly influenced by the Atlantic conditions, and thus suggests that the quality of the information in the lateral boundary conditions (LBCs) is crucial for the good modelling of Mediterranean sea level. We also found that the regional differences inside the basin, that are induced by circulation changes, are model-dependent and thus not affected by the LBCs. Finally, we argue that a correct configuration of LBCs in the Atlantic should be used for future Mediterranean simulations, which cover hindcast period, but also for scenarios

Measuring global ocean heat content to estimate the earth energy imbalance

The energy radiated by the Earth toward space does not compensate the incoming radiation from the Sun leading to a small positive energy imbalance at the top of the atmosphere (0.4–1 Wm–2). This imbalance is coined Earth’s Energy Imbalance (EEI). It is mostly caused by anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions and is driving the current warming of the planet. Precise monitoring of EEI is critical to assess the current status of climate change and the future evolution of climate. But the monitoring of EEI is challenging as EEI is two orders of magnitude smaller than the radiation fluxes in and out of the Earth system. Over 93% of the excess energy that is gained by the Earth in response to the positive EEI accumulates into the ocean in the form of heat. This accumulation of heat can be tracked with the ocean observing system such that today, the monitoring of Ocean Heat Content (OHC) and its long-term change provide the most efficient approach to estimate EEI. In this community paper we review the current four state-of-the-art methods to estimate global OHC changes and evaluate their relevance to derive EEI estimates on different time scales. These four methods make use of: (1) direct observations of in situ temperature; (2) satellite-based measurements of the ocean surface net heat fluxes; (3) satellite-based estimates of the thermal expansion of the ocean and (4) ocean reanalyses that assimilate observations from both satellite and in situ instruments. For each method we review the potential and the uncertainty of the method to estimate global OHC changes. We also analyze gaps in the current capability of each method and identify ways of progress for the future to fulfill the requirements of EEI monitoring. Achieving the observation of EEI with sufficient accuracy will depend on merging the remote sensing techniques with in situ measurements of key variables as an integral part of the Ocean Observing System

Towards comprehensive observing and modeling systems for monitoring and predicting regional to coastal sea level

A major challenge for managing impacts and implementing effective mitigation measures and adaptation strategies for coastal zones affected by future sea level (SL) rise is our limited capacity to predict SL change at the coast on relevant spatial and temporal scales. Predicting coastal SL requires the ability to monitor and simulate a multitude of physical processes affecting SL, from local effects of wind waves and river runoff to remote influences of the large-scale ocean circulation on the coast. Here we assess our current understanding of the causes of coastal SL variability on monthly to multi-decadal timescales, including geodetic, oceanographic and atmospheric aspects of the problem, and review available observing systems informing on coastal SL. We also review the ability of existing models and data assimilation systems to estimate coastal SL variations and of atmosphere-ocean global coupled models and related regional downscaling efforts to project future SL changes. We discuss (1) observational gaps and uncertainties, and priorities for the development of an optimal and integrated coastal SL observing system, (2) strategies for advancing model capabilities in forecasting short-term processes and projecting long-term changes affecting coastal SL, and (3) possible future developments of sea level services enabling better connection of scientists and user communities and facilitating assessment and decision making for adaptation to future coastal SL change.RP was funded by NASA grant NNH16CT00C. CD was supported by the Australian Research Council (FT130101532 and DP 160103130), the Scientific Committee on Oceanic Research (SCOR) Working Group 148, funded by national SCOR committees and a grant to SCOR from the U.S. National Science Foundation (Grant OCE-1546580), and the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO/International Oceanographic Data and Information Exchange (IOC/IODE) IQuOD Steering Group. SJ was supported by the Natural Environmental Research Council under Grant Agreement No. NE/P01517/1 and by the EPSRC NEWTON Fund Sustainable Deltas Programme, Grant Number EP/R024537/1. RvdW received funding from NWO, Grant 866.13.001. WH was supported by NASA (NNX17AI63G and NNX17AH25G). CL was supported by NASA Grant NNH16CT01C. This work is a contribution to the PIRATE project funded by CNES (to TP). PT was supported by the NOAA Research Global Ocean Monitoring and Observing Program through its sponsorship of UHSLC (NA16NMF4320058). JS was supported by EU contract 730030 (call H2020-EO-2016, “CEASELESS”). JW was supported by EU Horizon 2020 Grant 633211, Atlantos

The Copernicus Marine Environment Monitoring Service Ocean State Report

The Copernicus Marine Environment Monitoring Service (CMEMS) Ocean State Report (OSR) provides an annual report of the state of the global ocean and European regional seas for policy and decision-makers with the additional aim of increasing general public awareness about the status of, and changes in, the marine environment. The CMEMS OSR draws on expert analysis and provides a 3-D view (through reanalysis systems), a view from above (through remote-sensing data) and a direct view of the interior (through in situ measurements) of the global ocean and the European regional seas. The report is based on the unique CMEMS monitoring capabilities of the blue (hydrography, currents), white (sea ice) and green (e.g. Chlorophyll) marine environment. This first issue of the CMEMS OSR provides guidance on Essential Variables, large-scale changes and specific events related to the physical ocean state over the period 1993–2015. Principal findings of this first CMEMS OSR show a significant increase in global and regional sea levels, thermosteric expansion, ocean heat content, sea surface temperature and Antarctic sea ice extent and conversely a decrease in Arctic sea ice extent during the 1993–2015 period. During the year 2015 exceptionally strong large-scale changes were monitored such as, for example, a strong El Niño Southern Oscillation, a high frequency of extreme storms and sea level events in specific regions in addition to areas of high sea level and harmful algae blooms. At the same time, some areas in the Arctic Ocean experienced exceptionally low sea ice extent and temperatures below average were observed in the North Atlantic Ocean

Consistency of satellite climate data records for Earth system monitoring

Climate Data Records (CDRs) of Essential Climate Variables (ECVs) as defined by the Global Climate Observing System (GCOS) derived from satellite instruments help to characterize the main components of the Earth system, to identify the state and evolution of its processes, and to constrain the budgets of key cycles of water, carbon and energy. The Climate Change Initiative (CCI) of the European Space Agency (ESA) coordinates the derivation of CDRs for 21 GCOS ECVs. The combined use of multiple ECVs for Earth system science applications requires consistency between and across their respective CDRs. As a comprehensive definition for multi-ECV consistency is missing so far, this study proposes defining consistency on three levels: (1) consistency in format and metadata to facilitate their synergetic use (technical level); (2) consistency in assumptions and auxiliary datasets to minimize incompatibilities among datasets (retrieval level); and (3) consistency between combined or multiple CDRs within their estimated uncertainties or physical constraints (scientific level). Analysing consistency between CDRs of multiple quantities is a challenging task and requires coordination between different observational communities, which is facilitated by the CCI program. The inter-dependencies of the satellite-based CDRs derived within the CCI program are analysed to identify where consistency considerations are most important. The study also summarizes measures taken in CCI to ensure consistency on the technical level, and develops a concept for assessing consistency on the retrieval and scientific levels in the light of underlying physical knowledge. Finally, this study presents the current status of consistency between the CCI CDRs and future efforts needed to further improve it

Altimetry for the future: Building on 25 years of progress

In 2018 we celebrated 25 years of development of radar altimetry, and the progress achieved by this methodology in the fields of global and coastal oceanography, hydrology, geodesy and cryospheric sciences. Many symbolic major events have celebrated these developments, e.g., in Venice, Italy, the 15th (2006) and 20th (2012) years of progress and more recently, in 2018, in Ponta Delgada, Portugal, 25 Years of Progress in Radar Altimetry. On this latter occasion it was decided to collect contributions of scientists, engineers and managers involved in the worldwide altimetry community to depict the state of altimetry and propose recommendations for the altimetry of the future. This paper summarizes contributions and recommendations that were collected and provides guidance for future mission design, research activities, and sustainable operational radar altimetry data exploitation. Recommendations provided are fundamental for optimizing further scientific and operational advances of oceanographic observations by altimetry, including requirements for spatial and temporal resolution of altimetric measurements, their accuracy and continuity. There are also new challenges and new openings mentioned in the paper that are particularly crucial for observations at higher latitudes, for coastal oceanography, for cryospheric studies and for hydrology. The paper starts with a general introduction followed by a section on Earth System Science including Ocean Dynamics, Sea Level, the Coastal Ocean, Hydrology, the Cryosphere and Polar Oceans and the ‘‘Green” Ocean, extending the frontier from biogeochemistry to marine ecology. Applications are described in a subsequent section, which covers Operational Oceanography, Weather, Hurricane Wave and Wind Forecasting, Climate projection. Instruments’ development and satellite missions’ evolutions are described in a fourth section. A fifth section covers the key observations that altimeters provide and their potential complements, from other Earth observation measurements to in situ data. Section 6 identifies the data and methods and provides some accuracy and resolution requirements for the wet tropospheric correction, the orbit and other geodetic requirements, the Mean Sea Surface, Geoid and Mean Dynamic Topography, Calibration and Validation, data accuracy, data access and handling (including the DUACS system). Section 7 brings a transversal view on scales, integration, artificial intelligence, and capacity building (education and training). Section 8 reviews the programmatic issues followed by a conclusion