Hvilke rettslige virkemidler sikrer allmennhetens tilgang i fortettings- og transformasjonsområder

Oppgaven omhandler rettslige virkemidlene for å sikre allmennhetens tilgang til fortettings- og transformasjonsområder. Både offentligrettslige og privatrettslige virkemidler, samt virkemidler som kombinerer begge, gir kommunen handlingsrom til å sikre denne tilgangen. Oppgaven er delt i to deler. Den første delen kartlegger de ulike virkemidlene. Den andre delen har som formål å vise hvordan disse virkemidlene faktisk sikrer allmennhetens tilgang i praksis. Friluftsloven spiller en viktig rolle ved å sikre ferdsel og opphold gjennom allemannsretten, også i områder som blir fortettet eller transformert. Kommunen har et betydelig ansvar gjennom sin arealplanlegging i henhold til plan- og bygningsloven, herunder reguleringsplaner, for å sikre at områder er tilgjengelige for allmennheten. I tillegg kan utbyggingsavtaler brukes til å sikre at områdene blir utviklet og tilrettelagt ved å pålegge utbyggere å bekoste dette helt eller delvis. Et annet virkemiddel er bruken av tinglyste erklæringer, spesielt når tilgang til områdene ikke er klart definert i arealformålet. Det er en rettsoppfatning om at enkelte av plan- og bygningslovens arealformål i seg selv, sikrer allmennhetens tilgang. Herunder særlig arealformålet «grønnstruktur». Etter å ha gjort grundig analyse av forarbeider og lovens ordlyd, er det lite som taler for dette. Det var utgangspunktet for tilsvarende arealformål i den tidligere loven. Ifølge lovens forarbeider er det fortsatt det vanlige utgangspunkt, men må presiseres gjennom bestemmelser. Oppgaven konkluderer dermed med at de er rom og behov for presisering av lovens bestemmelse, § 12- 5 nr. 3.This master thesis discusses the legal means to ensure the public's access to densification and transformation areas. Both through public law means and private means, as well as means that combine both, give the municipality scope to secure this access. The assignment is divided into two parts. The first part maps the various instruments, while the second part aims to show how these means actually ensure public access in practice. The Open Space Act plays an important role by ensuring movement and residence through the right of access, also in areas that are being densified or transformed. The municipality has a significant responsibility through its spatial planning in accordance with the Planning and Building Act, including the preparation of zoning plans, to ensure that areas are accessible to the general public. In addition, development agreements can be used to ensure that the areas are developed and facilitated by requiring developers to pay for this in whole or in part. Another tool is the use of registered declarations, especially when access to the areas is not clearly defined in the area purpose. It is a legal opinion that certain of the Planning and Building Act's spatial purposes in themselves ensure public access. Including,in particular,the area purpose "green structure". After carrying out a thorough analysis of the preparatory work and the wording of the law, there is little to support this. That was the starting point for corresponding land purposes in the previous law. According to the drafters of the law, it is still the usual starting point,but must be specified through regulations. The assignment thus concludes that there is room and need for clarification of the Act's provision, § 12-5 no. 3

Towards a Framework of Authentication and Authorization Patterns for Ensuring Availability in Service Composition

During the past decade, the telecommunication environment has evolved from single operator featuring voice services to multi-operator featuring a range of different types of services. Services are being provided today in a distributed manner in a connectionless environment requiring cooperation of several components and actors. This report focuses on the incremental means to ensure access to services for authorized users only by composing authentication and authorization patterns and services. We propose a novel framework of authentication and authorization patterns for securing access to services for authorized users only, and we demonstrate how the patterns can be dynamically composed with services using a policy-driven approach

Monomeric PcrA helicase processively unwinds plasmid lengths of DNA in the presence of the initiator protein RepD

The helicase PcrA unwinds DNA during asymmetric replication of plasmids, acting with an initiator protein, in our case RepD. Detailed kinetics of PcrA activity were measured using bulk solution and a single-molecule imaging technique to investigate the oligomeric state of the active helicase complex, its processivity and the mechanism of unwinding. By tethering either DNA or PcrA to a microscope coverslip surface, unwinding of both linear and natural circular plasmid DNA by PcrA/RepD was followed in real-time using total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy. Visualization was achieved using a fluorescent single-stranded DNA-binding protein. The single-molecule data show that PcrA, in combination with RepD, can unwind plasmid lengths of DNA in a single run, and that PcrA is active as a monomer. Although the average rate of unwinding was similar in single-molecule and bulk solution assays, the single-molecule experiments revealed a wide distribution of unwinding speeds by different molecules. The average rate of unwinding was several-fold slower than the PcrA translocation rate on single-stranded DNA, suggesting that DNA unwinding may proceed via a partially passive mechanism. However, the fastest dsDNA unwinding rates measured in the single-molecule unwinding assays approached the PcrA translocation speed measured on ssDNA

Problematic Stabilizing Films in Petroleum Emulsions: Shear Rheological Response of Viscoelastic Asphaltene Films and the Effect on Drop Coalescence

Adsorption of asphaltenes at the water-oil interface contributes to the stability of petroleum emulsions by forming a networked film that can hinder drop-drop coalescence. The interfacial microstructure can either be liquid-like or solid-like, depending on (i) initial bulk concentration of asphaltenes, (ii) interfacial aging time, and (iii) solvent aromaticity. Two techniques--interfacial shear rheology and integrated thin film drainage apparatus--provided equivalent interface aging conditions, enabling direct correlation of the interfacial rheology and droplet stability. The shear rheological properties of the asphaltene film were found to be critical to the stability of contacting drops. With a viscous dominant interfacial microstructure, the coalescence time for two drops in intimate contact was rapid, on the order of seconds. However, as the elastic contribution develops and the film microstructure begins to be dominated by elasticity, the two drops in contact do not coalescence. Such step-change transition in coalescence is thought to be related to the high shear yield stress (~10(4) Pa), which is a function of the film shear yield point and the film thickness (as measured by quartz crystal microbalance), and the increased elastic stiffness of the film that prevents mobility and rupture of the asphaltene film, which when in a solid-like state provides an energy barrier against drop coalescence

Interaction of Rep and DnaB on DNA

Genome duplication requires not only unwinding of the template but also the displacement of proteins bound to the template, a function performed by replicative helicases located at the fork. However, accessory helicases are also needed since the replicative helicase stalls occasionally at nucleoprotein complexes. In Escherichia coli, the primary and accessory helicases DnaB and Rep translocate along the lagging and leading strand templates, respectively, interact physically and also display cooperativity in the unwinding of model forked DNA substrates. We demonstrate here that this cooperativity is displayed only by Rep and not by other tested helicases. ssDNA must be exposed on the leading strand template to elicit this cooperativity, indicating that forks blocked at protein–DNA complexes contain ssDNA ahead of the leading strand polymerase. However, stable Rep–DnaB complexes can form on linear as well as branched DNA, indicating that Rep has the capacity to interact with ssDNA on either the leading or the lagging strand template at forks. Inhibition of Rep binding to the lagging strand template by competition with SSB might therefore be critical in targeting accessory helicases to the leading strand template, indicating an important role for replisome architecture in promoting accessory helicase function at blocked replisomes

Release of Juniperus thurifera woodlands from herbivore-mediated arrested succession in Spain

Question: Do abiotic constraints maintain monospecific woodlands of Juniperus thurifera? What is the role of biotic (livestock) versus abiotic (climate) drivers in the recruitment and growth of the different tree species? Location: Cabrejas range, Soria, north-central Spain, 1200m altitude. Methods: Stand history was reconstructed using dendroecology and spatial pattern analysis, combined with historical data of livestock abundances and climatic records. Results: J. thurifera establishment occurred in two distinct pulses, with a tree component establishing in the late 1800s to early 1900s. Quercus ilex and Pinus sylvestris establishment was evident only from the late 1970s onward. Recruitment events were related to reductions in livestock browsing. J. thurifera spatial structure was clumped and Q. ilex showed a short-scale aggregation to J. thurifera trees and saplings. Radial growth trends of J. thurifera saplings, Q. ilex and P. sylvestris were negatively related to livestock density. Summer drought limited the radial growth of all the study species, and P. sylvestris and Q. ilex grew faster than J. thurifera even after considering an age effect. Conclusions: The differences in radial growth patterns and recruitment pulses between species indicate that livestock browsing and not abiotic factors is the main factor controlling plant succession and structural development. In this process, J. thurifera acts as a nurse plant, facilitating the establishment of other tree species. Under the current low pressure from herbivores, formerly pure J. thurifera woodlands will change towards dense stands of mixed species composition

Spatial Dynamics of Invasion: The Geometry of Introduced Species

Many exotic species combine low probability of establishment at each introduction with rapid population growth once introduction does succeed. To analyze this phenomenon, we note that invaders often cluster spatially when rare, and consequently an introduced exotic's population dynamics should depend on locally structured interactions. Ecological theory for spatially structured invasion relies on deterministic approximations, and determinism does not address the observed uncertainty of the exotic-introduction process. We take a new approach to the population dynamics of invasion and, by extension, to the general question of invasibility in any spatial ecology. We apply the physical theory for nucleation of spatial systems to a lattice-based model of competition between plant species, a resident and an invader, and the analysis reaches conclusions that differ qualitatively from the standard ecological theories. Nucleation theory distinguishes between dynamics of single-cluster and multi-cluster invasion. Low introduction rates and small system size produce single-cluster dynamics, where success or failure of introduction is inherently stochastic. Single-cluster invasion occurs only if the cluster reaches a critical size, typically preceded by a number of failed attempts. For this case, we identify the functional form of the probability distribution of time elapsing until invasion succeeds. Although multi-cluster invasion for sufficiently large systems exhibits spatial averaging and almost-deterministic dynamics of the global densities, an analytical approximation from nucleation theory, known as Avrami's law, describes our simulation results far better than standard ecological approximations.Comment: 25 pages (pdf