Approche d'immunothérapie dans un modèle murin de pathologie Tau

Tau pathology is a common lesion observed in more than twenty neurological disorders, refered to as Tauopathies. It corresponds to the aggregation of the microtubule associated protein Tau hyper and abnormally phosphorylated into neurofibrillary tangles. In Alzheimer's disease (AD), the most common age-related dementia, the distribution and progression of Tau pathology have been reported to be well-correlated to the cognitive decline. Currently, treatments remain essentially symptomatic. However, several therapeutic approaches, including immunotherapy, are being developed to treat Tau pathology. The work presented in this thesis aim to investigate the effects of both active and passive Tau immunotherapy in a transgenic mouse model of Alzheimer’s disease-like Tau pathology. THY-Tau22 mice overexpress a double-mutated isoform of the human Tau protein, whose expression is under the control of a neuronal promoter. Several lines of evidence suggest that this transgenic mouse model is reproducing early stages of AD. Indeed, at three month old, the THY-Tau22 mouse model presents a progressive impairment of learning and memory without major neuronal loss, in parallel to Tau accumulation in the hippocampus. Moreover, Tau is hyper and abnormally phosphorylated at different sites including Ser422. Noteworthy, the pSer422 epitope is a single abnormal site of phosphorylation present only in pathological conditions, rendering it of particular interest for immunotherapy. In this present thesis work, we showed that early vaccination against the phosphorylated Ser422 Tau protein reduced spatial memory impairment as measured by the Y-maze test. Interestingly, this is associated with the decrease of the abnormal phosphorylation of Tau in the hippocampus and with a significant reduction of insoluble Tau species. Based on these results, we generated a new monoclonal antibody raised against pSer422 (2H9) to evaluate the effects of passive immunotherapy. The antibody was injected every week, intraperitoneally (5mg/kg and 10mg/kg of 2H9 or saline buffer) in the THY-Tau22 mice. We show that this approach can prevent the appearance of spatial memory deficits as measured by the Y maze and the Morris water maze tests. Immunohistochemical analysis also revealed a reduction of abnormally phosphorylated Tau proteins in the hippocampus. To investigate the mechanisms underlying Tau immunotherapy, we performed stereotaxic injections of anti-phosphoTau antibodies in the hippocampus of THY-Tau22 mice. We showed that, once in the brain, anti-phosphoTau antibodies were located inside the neurons in contrast to the isotype control. Several recent studies of immunotherapy, suggest an involvement of macroautophagy in the antibody-mediated degradation. We showed that internalized antibodies colocalized with different markers of the lysosomal pathway (NPC1, Lamp2) confirming this hypothesis of a lysosomal-mediated degradation. However, since the blood-brain barrier is highly selective, the antibodies may more likely act in the periphery. Indeed, we showed that peripheral administration of 250μg of the 2H9 generates a significant increase of Tau proteins levels in plasma, suggesting a peripheral sink mechanism as for Aβ immunotherapy. Vaccination, which generates a polyclonal response, leads to a greater increase of plasmatic Tau that confirms the peripheral degradation of Tau. Overall, the results of this PhD work confirmed the promising potential of Tau immunotherapy for Alzheimer\\\\\\\'s disease and other Tauopathies treatment. Moreover, it address a new hypothesis suggesting that the antibodies mediated degradation of Tau proteins might be through a peripheral sink such as for Aβ.La pathologie Tau est une lésion commune à plus d’une vingtaine de maladies neurodégénératives, regroupées sous le terme de Tauopathies. Elle correspond à l’accumulation intracellulaire de matériel fibrillaire constitué de protéines Tau hyper- et anormalement phosphorylées. Dans la maladie d’Alzheimer (MA), démence la plus courante chez la personne âgée, la progression et la distribution topographique de ces agrégats évoluent au cours du temps et sont corrélés aux déficits cognitifs observés. A ce jour, les traitements sont principalement symptomatiques. Cependant, plusieurs stratégies thérapeutiques sont étudiées parmi lesquelles l’immunothérapie. Les travaux présentés dans cette thèse ont pour objectif d’étudier les effets de l’immunothérapie Tau, active et passive, dans un modèle transgénique murin mimant la pathologie Tau de type Alzheimer. Les souris THY-Tau22, surexpriment une isoforme de Tau humaine mutée sur deux sites et sous contrôle d’un promoteur neuronal. Ce modèle présente dès l’âge de trois mois des altérations progressives de l’apprentissage et de la mémoire en parallèle d’une accumulation de protéine Tau principalement au niveau hippocampique, sans perte neuronale majeure, ce qui lui confère les caractéristiques d’un stade précoce de MA. Au sein du modèle THY-Tau22, on retrouve la protéine Tau phosphorylée en Ser422, un épitope particulièrement pertinent pour l’immunothérapie. En effet, la pSer422 est un épitope de phosphorylation anormale unique, présent dans la plupart des Tauopathies. Dans ces travaux de thèse, nous montrons que la vaccination précoce contre la Ser422 phosphorylée de la protéine Tau peut prévenir l'altération de mémoire spatiale mesurée par le test du labyrinthe en Y. Cette diminution de l'atteinte cognitive est associée à une diminution de la phosphorylation anormale de Tau au niveau de l'hippocampe et à une réduction significative des espèces insolubles de Tau. Les résultats de cette vaccination nous ont amenés à générer un anticorps monoclonal dirigé contre la pSer422 (2H9) afin d’évaluer les effets de l’immunothérapie passive. Selon la même cinétique d’âge, nous avons injecté, chaque semaine, par voie intrapéritonéale, des souris THY-Tau22 avec 5mg/kg et 10mg/kg de 2H9 ou une solution saline. Cette approche prévient l’apparition de déficits de mémoire spatiale mesurée par les tests du labyrinthe en Y et de la piscine de Morris. Les analyses immunohistochimiques révèlent également une réduction des protéines Tau anormalement phosphorylées au niveau de l’hippocampe. Afin d’étudier les mécanismes sous-jacents à l’immunothérapie anti Tau, nous avons injecté des anticorps anti-phosphoTau par stéréotaxie au niveau de l’hippocampe de souris THY-Tau22. Nous montrons, qu’une fois au sein du cerveau, ils sont capables d’entrer dans les neurones contrairement au contrôle isotypique. Plusieurs études récentes d’immunothérapie, suggèrent une implication de la macroautophagie dans la dégradation médiée par les anticorps. Nous montrons que les anticorps internalisés dans les neurones colocalisent avec différents marqueurs de la voie lysosomiale (NPC1, Lamp2) confirmant l’hypothèse d’une dégradation par le lysosome. Cependant, la barrière hémato encéphalique étant très sélective, il est fort probable que les anticorps générés restent en périphérie. [...

Rebound pathway overactivation by cancer cells following discontinuation of PI3K or mTOR inhibition promotes cancer cell growth.

Whilst effects of anti-cancer drugs have been thoroughly explored, little is known about the repercussion of drug cessation. However, this has important clinical relevance since several clinical protocols such as intermittent drug scheduling lead to frequent drug discontinuation. In this study, we have thus investigated the consequences of withdrawal of agents that target the PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling pathway in cancer cells. We report that washout of kinase inhibitors of mTOR or PI3K inhibitors led to a rapid and sustainable overactivation of AKT. Consequently, proliferation of tumor cells was significantly higher following drug washout in cancer cells that were pre-treated with mTOR or PI3K inhibitors compared to untreated cells. This effect was prevented by the addition of an AKT inhibitor following drug washout. Rebound AKT overactivation induced by mTOR or PI3K inhibitors discontinuation was mediated by IGF-1R, as demonstrated by its prevention in the presence of an IGF-1R inhibitor and by increased IGF-1R phosphorylation in treated cells versus control cells. Taken together, our results show that discontinuation of PI3K or mTOR inhibitors results in AKT overactivation that promotes tumor growth. They further highlight the benefit of adding an AKT inhibitor following cessation of PI3K or mTOR inhibitors

Analyse diachronique de l’efficience technique des systèmes de production bovin viande. Baisse de la productivité des facteurs variables sur 23 ans

De 1990 à 2012, les exploitations d’élevage bovins viande françaises ont accru leur taille et leur productivité du travail de plus de 60 % grâce, notamment, à une substitution travail/capital et à une simplification de certaines pratiques d’alimentation du troupeau, entre autres. L’efficience technique des systèmes de production, mesurée par le ratio volume de production hors aides/volume des consommations intermédiaires a baissé de près de 20 %, alors que le revenu par travailleur s’est maintenu grâce aux aides et aux gains de productivité physique du travail. Cette efficience technique est positivement corrélée à l’autonomie alimentaire des exploitations, elle-même négativement corrélée à la taille des exploitations et des troupeaux. Alors que le volume de production par hectare de surface agricole utilisée a stagné, l’autonomie alimentaire par les fourrages (la valorisation de l’herbe) a perdu 6 points. Les 23 années de progrès génétique, technique, technologique et des connaissances ont accompagné l’augmentation continue de la taille des exploitations et de la productivité du travail, et ont donc juste permis de compenser la diminution d’efficience des systèmes de production.Over the past 23 years (1990-2012) French beef-cattle farms had increased their size and labor productivity by more than 60%. These gains were possible thanks to a substitution work/capital and to a simplification of herd feeding practices. The efficiency of production systems is estimated by the ratio volume of agricultural production/volume of intermediate consumptions (inputs, services, capital consumption). This efficiency decreased by 20%, while income per worker remained stable thanks to aids and subsidies and to the gains in labor productivity. The efficiency of the beef-cattle farming systems is strongly positively correlated with the feed self-sufficiency, which is itself negatively correlated with the size of farms and herds. While the volume of agricultural products per hectare of agricultural area remained stable, the forage feed self-sufficient lost 6 points. 20 years of genetics, technical, technological and knowledge progress has thus helped offset lower efficiency strongly related to the continuous increase in the size of the farms

NMDA receptor dysfunction contributes to impaired brain-derived neurotrophic factor-induced facilitation of hippocampal synaptic transmission in a Tau transgenic model.

While the spatiotemporal development of Tau pathology has been correlated with occurrence of cognitive deficits in Alzheimer's patients, mechanisms underlying these deficits remain unclear. Both brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and its tyrosine kinase receptor TrkB play a critical role in hippocampus-dependent synaptic plasticity and memory. When applied on hippocampal slices, BDNF is able to enhance AMPA receptor-dependent hippocampal basal synaptic transmission through a mechanism involving TrkB and N-methyl-d-Aspartate receptors (NMDAR). Using THY-Tau22 transgenic mice, we demonstrated that hippocampal Tau pathology is associated with loss of synaptic enhancement normally induced by exogenous BDNF. This defective response was concomitant to significant memory impairments. We show here that loss of BDNF response was due to impaired NMDAR function. Indeed, we observed a significant reduction of NMDA-induced field excitatory postsynaptic potential depression in the hippocampus of Tau mice together with a reduced phosphorylation of NR2B at the Y1472, known to be critical for NMDAR function. Interestingly, we found that both NR2B and Src, one of the NR2B main kinases, interact with Tau and are mislocalized to the insoluble protein fraction rich in pathological Tau species. Defective response to BDNF was thus likely related to abnormal interaction of Src and NR2B with Tau in THY-Tau22 animals. These are the first data demonstrating a relationship between Tau pathology and synaptic effects of BDNF and supporting a contribution of defective BDNF response and impaired NMDAR function to the cognitive deficits associated with Tauopathies

NPT088 reduces both amyloid-b and tau pathologies in transgenic mice

Introduction: Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is characterized by appearance of both extracellular senile plaques and intracellular neurofibrillary tangles, comprised of aggregates of misfolded amyloid-b (Ab) and hyper-phosphorylated tau, respectively. In a previous study, we demonstrated that g3p, a capsid protein from bacteriophage M13, binds to and remodels misfolded aggregates of proteins that assume an amyloid conformation. We engineered a fusion protein (“NPT088”) consisting of the active fragment of g3p and human-IgG1-Fc. Methods: Aged Tg2576 mice or rTg4510 mice received NPT088 weekly via IP injection. Cognitive and/or functional motor endpoints were monitored during dosing. Pathology was quantified biochemically and immunohistochemically. Results: NPT088-lowered Ab plaque and improved cognitive performance of aged Tg2576 mice. Moreover, NPT088 reduced phospho-tau pathology, reduced brain atrophy, and improved cognition in rTg4510 mice. Discussion: These observations establish NPT088 as a novel therapeutic approach and potential drug class that targets both Ab and tau, the hallmark pathologies of AD

Advances in the therapy of Alzheimer's disease: Targeting amyloid beta and tau and perspectives for the future

Worldwide multidisciplinary translational research has led to a growing knowledge of the genetics and molecular pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD) indicating that pathophysiological brain alterations occur decades before clinical signs and symptoms of cognitive decline can be diagnosed. Consequently, therapeutic concepts and targets have been increasingly focused on early-stage illness before the onset of dementia; and distinct classes of compounds are now being tested in clinical trials. At present, there is a growing consensus that therapeutic progress in AD delaying disease progression would significantly decrease the expanding global burden. The evolving hypothesis- and evidence-based generation of new diagnostic research criteria for early-stage AD has positively impacted the development of clinical trial designs and the characterization of earlier and more specific target populations for trials in prodromal as well as in pre- and asymptomatic at-risk stages of AD

Tau filament self-assembly and structure: tau as a therapeutic target

Tau plays an important pathological role in a group of neurodegenerative diseases called tauopathies, including Alzheimer's disease, Pick's disease, chronic traumatic encephalopathy and corticobasal degeneration. In each disease, tau self-assembles abnormally to form filaments that deposit in the brain. Tau is a natively unfolded protein that can adopt distinct structures in different pathological disorders. Cryo-electron microscopy has recently provided a series of structures for the core of the filaments purified from brain tissue from patients with different tauopathies and revealed that they share a common core region, while differing in their specific conformation. This structurally resolvable part of the core is contained within a proteolytically stable core region from the repeat domain initially isolated from AD tau filaments. Tau has recently become an important target for therapy. Recent work has suggested that the prevention of tau self-assembly may be effective in slowing the progression of Alzheimer's disease and other tauopathies. Here we review the work that explores the importance of tau filament structures and tau self-assembly mechanisms, as well as examining model systems that permit the exploration of the mode of action of potential inhibitors

Immunotherapy approach in a mouse model of tau pathology

La pathologie Tau est une lésion commune à plus d’une vingtaine de maladies neurodégénératives, regroupées sous le terme de Tauopathies. Elle correspond à l’accumulation intracellulaire de matériel fibrillaire constitué de protéines Tau hyper- et anormalement phosphorylées. Dans la maladie d’Alzheimer (MA), démence la plus courante chez la personne âgée, la progression et la distribution topographique de ces agrégats évoluent au cours du temps et sont corrélés aux déficits cognitifs observés. A ce jour, les traitements sont principalement symptomatiques. Cependant, plusieurs stratégies thérapeutiques sont étudiées parmi lesquelles l’immunothérapie. Les travaux présentés dans cette thèse ont pour objectif d’étudier les effets de l’immunothérapie Tau, active et passive, dans un modèle transgénique murin mimant la pathologie Tau de type Alzheimer. Les souris THY-Tau22, surexpriment une isoforme de Tau humaine mutée sur deux sites et sous contrôle d’un promoteur neuronal. Ce modèle présente dès l’âge de trois mois des altérations progressives de l’apprentissage et de la mémoire en parallèle d’une accumulation de protéine Tau principalement au niveau hippocampique, sans perte neuronale majeure, ce qui lui confère les caractéristiques d’un stade précoce de MA. Au sein du modèle THY-Tau22, on retrouve la protéine Tau phosphorylée en Ser422, un épitope particulièrement pertinent pour l’immunothérapie. En effet, la pSer422 est un épitope de phosphorylation anormale unique, présent dans la plupart des Tauopathies. Dans ces travaux de thèse, nous montrons que la vaccination précoce contre la Ser422 phosphorylée de la protéine Tau peut prévenir l'altération de mémoire spatiale mesurée par le test du labyrinthe en Y. Cette diminution de l'atteinte cognitive est associée à une diminution de la phosphorylation anormale de Tau au niveau de l'hippocampe et à une réduction significative des espèces insolubles de Tau. Les résultats de cette vaccination nous ont amenés à générer un anticorps monoclonal dirigé contre la pSer422 (2H9) afin d’évaluer les effets de l’immunothérapie passive. Selon la même cinétique d’âge, nous avons injecté, chaque semaine, par voie intrapéritonéale, des souris THY-Tau22 avec 5mg/kg et 10mg/kg de 2H9 ou une solution saline. Cette approche prévient l’apparition de déficits de mémoire spatiale mesurée par les tests du labyrinthe en Y et de la piscine de Morris. Les analyses immunohistochimiques révèlent également une réduction des protéines Tau anormalement phosphorylées au niveau de l’hippocampe. Afin d’étudier les mécanismes sous-jacents à l’immunothérapie anti Tau, nous avons injecté des anticorps anti-phosphoTau par stéréotaxie au niveau de l’hippocampe de souris THY-Tau22. Nous montrons, qu’une fois au sein du cerveau, ils sont capables d’entrer dans les neurones contrairement au contrôle isotypique. Plusieurs études récentes d’immunothérapie, suggèrent une implication de la macroautophagie dans la dégradation médiée par les anticorps. Nous montrons que les anticorps internalisés dans les neurones colocalisent avec différents marqueurs de la voie lysosomiale (NPC1, Lamp2) confirmant l’hypothèse d’une dégradation par le lysosome. Cependant, la barrière hémato encéphalique étant très sélective, il est fort probable que les anticorps générés restent en périphérie. [...]Tau pathology is a common lesion observed in more than twenty neurological disorders, refered to as Tauopathies. It corresponds to the aggregation of the microtubule associated protein Tau hyper and abnormally phosphorylated into neurofibrillary tangles. In Alzheimer's disease (AD), the most common age-related dementia, the distribution and progression of Tau pathology have been reported to be well-correlated to the cognitive decline. Currently, treatments remain essentially symptomatic. However, several therapeutic approaches, including immunotherapy, are being developed to treat Tau pathology. The work presented in this thesis aim to investigate the effects of both active and passive Tau immunotherapy in a transgenic mouse model of Alzheimer’s disease-like Tau pathology. THY-Tau22 mice overexpress a double-mutated isoform of the human Tau protein, whose expression is under the control of a neuronal promoter. Several lines of evidence suggest that this transgenic mouse model is reproducing early stages of AD. Indeed, at three month old, the THY-Tau22 mouse model presents a progressive impairment of learning and memory without major neuronal loss, in parallel to Tau accumulation in the hippocampus. Moreover, Tau is hyper and abnormally phosphorylated at different sites including Ser422. Noteworthy, the pSer422 epitope is a single abnormal site of phosphorylation present only in pathological conditions, rendering it of particular interest for immunotherapy. In this present thesis work, we showed that early vaccination against the phosphorylated Ser422 Tau protein reduced spatial memory impairment as measured by the Y-maze test. Interestingly, this is associated with the decrease of the abnormal phosphorylation of Tau in the hippocampus and with a significant reduction of insoluble Tau species. Based on these results, we generated a new monoclonal antibody raised against pSer422 (2H9) to evaluate the effects of passive immunotherapy. The antibody was injected every week, intraperitoneally (5mg/kg and 10mg/kg of 2H9 or saline buffer) in the THY-Tau22 mice. We show that this approach can prevent the appearance of spatial memory deficits as measured by the Y maze and the Morris water maze tests. Immunohistochemical analysis also revealed a reduction of abnormally phosphorylated Tau proteins in the hippocampus. To investigate the mechanisms underlying Tau immunotherapy, we performed stereotaxic injections of anti-phosphoTau antibodies in the hippocampus of THY-Tau22 mice. We showed that, once in the brain, anti-phosphoTau antibodies were located inside the neurons in contrast to the isotype control. Several recent studies of immunotherapy, suggest an involvement of macroautophagy in the antibody-mediated degradation. We showed that internalized antibodies colocalized with different markers of the lysosomal pathway (NPC1, Lamp2) confirming this hypothesis of a lysosomal-mediated degradation. However, since the blood-brain barrier is highly selective, the antibodies may more likely act in the periphery. Indeed, we showed that peripheral administration of 250μg of the 2H9 generates a significant increase of Tau proteins levels in plasma, suggesting a peripheral sink mechanism as for Aβ immunotherapy. Vaccination, which generates a polyclonal response, leads to a greater increase of plasmatic Tau that confirms the peripheral degradation of Tau. Overall, the results of this PhD work confirmed the promising potential of Tau immunotherapy for Alzheimer\\\\\\\'s disease and other Tauopathies treatment. Moreover, it address a new hypothesis suggesting that the antibodies mediated degradation of Tau proteins might be through a peripheral sink such as for Aβ