Age influence on effectiveness of a novel 3-phytase in barley-wheat based diets for pigs from 12 to 108 kg under commercial conditions

[EN] The main objective of this study was to evaluate the influence of pig's age on the effectiveness of a new microbial 3-phytase, produced by Komagataella phaffii, under commercial conditions in barley-wheat based diets. Two experiments were conducted in weaned, growing and finishing pigs; firstly, to determine phytase efficacy on dry matter, organic matter, energy, protein and mineral (phosphorus, P and calcium, Ca) digestibility (n = 48; Experiment 1), and secondly, to evaluate the effect of phytase on growth performance and bone mineralization (n = 312; Experiment 2). In each experiment, three barley-wheat based diets were formulated following the recommendations for each animal age, of which two versions were manufactured, including 0 and 1000 phytase units (FTU)/kg of feed of the new 3-phytase to be tested. Results showed the new phytase had the potential to increase the digestibility of Ca and P (on av. + 0.05 and +0.06, respectively; P < 0.01), especially P digestibility in growing pigs (+0.10; P < 0.001), consequently decreasing P and Ca excretion. Digestible energy (DE) of the diet increased with the addition of phytase in weaned pigs (+0.69 MJ/kg of dry matter (DM); P < 0.001). Dietary inclusion of new 3-phytase enhanced average daily gain from 46 to 94 days of age (+0.07 kg/d; P < 0.05) and decreased feed conversion ratio from 46 to 154 days of age (on av. -0.13; P < 0.05), although no significant effect was observed from 154 to 185 days of age. Addition of the new 3-phytase also promoted bone mineralization, increasing the weight of the bones (+3.99 and +3.64 g of tibia at 95 days and metacarpus at 100 days of age, respectively; P < 0.05) and the ash, Ca and P content in these bones (e.g. + 0.46 and +0.33 g of P in tibia at 95 days and metacarpus at 100 days of age, respectively; P < 0.001). In conclusion, pig age affected the efficacy of a new 3-phytase on P and Ca digestibility both in weaned and growing diets and DE content of the weaned diets, which also resulted in improvements in growth, feed conversion and bone development until 154 days of age. These effects seem to be reduced during the finishing period, although the advantages of the new 3-phytase on bone mineralization were maintained until 185 days of age.We thank the technical staff at the experimental farms of the Research and Technology Animal Centre (CITA-IVIA), the Institute of Animal Science and Technology (Universitat Politècnica de Valencia) and Javier Gómez (Crianzas Campovivo) for expert technical assistance and experimental support.Cambra López, M.; Cerisuelo, A.; Ferrer, P.; Ródenas Martínez, L.; Aligué, R.; Moset, V.; Pascual Amorós, JJ. (2020). Age influence on effectiveness of a novel 3-phytase in barley-wheat based diets for pigs from 12 to 108 kg under commercial conditions. Animal Feed Science and Technology. 267:1-13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2020.114549S113267Adeola, O., & Cowieson, A. J. (2011). BOARD-INVITED REVIEW: Opportunities and challenges in using exogenous enzymes to improve nonruminant animal production. Journal of Animal Science, 89(10), 3189-3218. doi:10.2527/jas.2010-3715Almeida, F. N., Sulabo, R. C., & Stein, H. H. (2013). Effects of a novel bacterial phytase expressed in Aspergillus Oryzae on digestibility of calcium and phosphorus in diets fed to weanling or growing pigs. Journal of Animal Science and Biotechnology, 4(1). doi:10.1186/2049-1891-4-8Arredondo, M. A., Casas, G. A., & Stein, H. H. (2019). Increasing levels of microbial phytase increases the digestibility of energy and minerals in diets fed to pigs. Animal Feed Science and Technology, 248, 27-36. doi:10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2019.01.001Atakora, J. K. A., Moehn, S., Sands, J. S., & Ball, R. O. (2011). Effects of dietary crude protein and phytase–xylanase supplementation of wheat grain based diets on energy metabolism and enteric methane in growing finishing pigs. Animal Feed Science and Technology, 166-167, 422-429. doi:10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2011.04.030Blaabjerg, K., Nørgaard, J. V., & Poulsen, H. D. (2012). Effect of microbial phytase on phosphorus digestibility in non-heat-treated and heat-treated wheat–barley pig diets1. Journal of Animal Science, 90(suppl_4), 206-208. doi:10.2527/jas.53920Brady, S., Callan, J., Cowan, D., McGrane, M., & O’Doherty, J. (2002). Effect of phytase inclusion and calcium/phosphorus ratio on the performance and nutrient retention of grower-finisher pigs fed barley/wheat/soya bean meal-based diets. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 82(15), 1780-1790. doi:10.1002/jsfa.1262Braña, D. V., Ellis, M., Castañeda, E. O., Sands, J. S., & Baker, D. H. (2006). Effect of a novel phytase on growth performance, bone ash, and mineral digestibility in nursery and grower-finisher pigs. Journal of Animal Science, 84(7), 1839-1849. doi:10.2527/jas.2005-565Dersjant‐Li, Y., Awati, A., Schulze, H., & Partridge, G. (2014). Phytase in non‐ruminant animal nutrition: a critical review on phytase activities in the gastrointestinal tract and influencing factors. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 95(5), 878-896. doi:10.1002/jsfa.6998Eeckhout, W., & De Paepe, M. (1994). Total phosphorus, phytate-phosphorus and phytase activity in plant feedstuffs. Animal Feed Science and Technology, 47(1-2), 19-29. doi:10.1016/0377-8401(94)90156-2EMIOLA, A., AKINREMI, O., SLOMINSKI, B., & NYACHOTI, C. M. (2009). Nutrient utilization and manure P excretion in growing pigs fed corn-barley-soybean based diets supplemented with microbial phytase. Animal Science Journal, 80(1), 19-26. doi:10.1111/j.1740-0929.2008.00590.xGonzález-Vega, J. C., Walk, C. L., & Stein, H. H. (2015). Effects of microbial phytase on apparent and standardized total tract digestibility of calcium in calcium supplements fed to growing pigs1. Journal of Animal Science, 93(5), 2255-2264. doi:10.2527/jas.2014-8215Harper, A. F., Kornegay, E. T., & Schell, T. C. (1997). Phytase supplementation of low-phosphorus growing-finishing pig diets improves performance, phosphorus digestibility, and bone mineralization and reduces phosphorus excretion. Journal of Animal Science, 75(12), 3174. doi:10.2527/1997.75123174xHaug, W., & Lantzsch, H.-J. (1983). Sensitive method for the rapid determination of phytate in cereals and cereal products. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 34(12), 1423-1426. doi:10.1002/jsfa.2740341217Heaney, R. P., Abrams, S., Dawson-Hughes, B., Looker, A., Looker, A., Marcus, R., … Weaver, C. (2001). Peak Bone Mass. Osteoporosis International, 11(12), 985-1009. doi:10.1007/s001980070020Jørgensen, B. (1995). Effect of different energy and protein levels on leg weakness and osteochondrosis in pigs. Livestock Production Science, 41(2), 171-181. doi:10.1016/0301-6226(94)00048-cKemme, P. A., Jongbloed, A. W., Mroz, Z., & Beynen, A. C. (1997). The efficacy of Aspergillus niger phytase in rendering phytate phosphorus available for absorption in pigs is influenced by pig physiological status. Journal of Animal Science, 75(8), 2129. doi:10.2527/1997.7582129xKiela, P. R., & Ghishan, F. K. (2016). Physiology of Intestinal Absorption and Secretion. Best Practice & Research Clinical Gastroenterology, 30(2), 145-159. doi:10.1016/j.bpg.2016.02.007Kim, J. C., Simmins, P. H., Mullan, B. P., & Pluske, J. R. (2005). The effect of wheat phosphorus content and supplemental enzymes on digestibility and growth performance of weaner pigs. Animal Feed Science and Technology, 118(1-2), 139-152. doi:10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2004.08.016Koch, M. E., & Mahan, D. C. (1985). Biological Characteristics for Assessing Low Phosphorus Intake in Growing Swine. Journal of Animal Science, 60(3), 699-708. doi:10.2527/jas1985.603699xKonietzny, U., & Greiner, R. (2002). Molecular and catalytic properties of phytate-degrading enzymes (phytases). International Journal of Food Science and Technology, 37(7), 791-812. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2621.2002.00617.xLittell, R. C., Henry, P. R., & Ammerman, C. B. (1998). Statistical analysis of repeated measures data using SAS procedures. Journal of Animal Science, 76(4), 1216. doi:10.2527/1998.7641216xMahan, D. C. (1982). Dietary Calcium and Phosphorus Levels for Weanling Swine. Journal of Animal Science, 54(3), 559-564. doi:10.2527/jas1982.543559xMavromichalis, I., Hancock, J. D., Kim, I. H., Senne, B. W., Kropf, D. H., Kennedy, G. A., … Behnke, K. C. (1999). Effects of omitting vitamin and trace mineral premixes and(or) reducing inorganic phosphorus additions on growth performance, carcass characteristics, and muscle quality in finishing pigs. Journal of Animal Science, 77(10), 2700. doi:10.2527/1999.77102700xMoehn, S., Atakora, J. K. A., Sands, J., & Ball, R. O. (2007). Effect of phytase-xylanase supplementation to wheat-based diets on energy metabolism in growing–finishing pigs fed ad libitum. Livestock Science, 109(1-3), 271-274. doi:10.1016/j.livsci.2007.01.118Oryschak, M. A., Simmins, P. H., & Zijlstra, R. T. (2002). Effect of dietary particle size and carbohydrase and/or phytase supplementation on nitrogen and phosphorus excretion of grower pigs. Canadian Journal of Animal Science, 82(4), 533-540. doi:10.4141/a02-016Peter, C. ., Parr, T. ., Parr, E. ., Webel, D. ., & Baker, D. . (2001). The effects of phytase on growth performance, carcass characteristics, and bone mineralization of late-finishing pigs fed maize–soyabean meal diets containing no supplemental phosphorus, zinc, copper and manganese. Animal Feed Science and Technology, 94(3-4), 199-205. doi:10.1016/s0377-8401(01)00300-5Rodehutscord, M., Faust, M., & Lorenz, H. (1996). Digestibility of phosphorus contained in soybean meal, barley, and different varieties of wheat, without and with supplemental phytase fed to pigs and additivity of digestibility in a wheatsoybean-meal diet. Journal of Animal Physiology and Animal Nutrition, 75(1-5), 40-48. doi:10.1111/j.1439-0396.1996.tb00466.xSelle, P. H., & Ravindran, V. (2008). Phytate-degrading enzymes in pig nutrition. Livestock Science, 113(2-3), 99-122. doi:10.1016/j.livsci.2007.05.014Selle, P. H., Cadogan, D. J., & Bryden, W. L. (2003). Effects of phytase supplementation of phosphorus-adequate, lysine-deficient, wheat-based diets on growth performance of weaner pigs. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research, 54(3), 323. doi:10.1071/ar02121She, Y., Su, Y., Liu, L., Huang, C., Li, J., Li, P., … Piao, X. (2015). Effects of microbial phytase on coefficient of standardized total tract digestibility of phosphorus in growing pigs fed corn and corn co-products, wheat and wheat co-products and oilseed meals. Animal Feed Science and Technology, 208, 132-144. doi:10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2015.07.011Van Soest, P. J., Robertson, J. B., & Lewis, B. A. (1991). Methods for Dietary Fiber, Neutral Detergent Fiber, and Nonstarch Polysaccharides in Relation to Animal Nutrition. Journal of Dairy Science, 74(10), 3583-3597. doi:10.3168/jds.s0022-0302(91)78551-2Varley, P. F., Callan, J. J., & O’Doherty, J. V. (2011). Effect of dietary phosphorus and calcium level and phytase addition on performance, bone parameters, apparent nutrient digestibility, mineral and nitrogen utilization of weaner pigs and the subsequent effect on finisher pig bone parameters. Animal Feed Science and Technology, 165(3-4), 201-209. doi:10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2011.02.017Varley, P. F., Flynn, B., Callan, J. J., & O’Doherty, J. V. (2011). Effect of phytase level in a low phosphorus diet on performance and bone development in weaner pigs and the subsequent effect on finisher pig bone development. Livestock Science, 138(1-3), 152-158. doi:10.1016/j.livsci.2010.12.014Vipperman, P. E., Peo, E. R., & Cunningham, P. J. (1974). Effect of Dietary Calcium and Phosphorus Level upon Calcium, Phosphorus and Nitrogen Balance in Swine. Journal of Animal Science, 38(4), 758-765. doi:10.2527/jas1974.384758

Data S1: Raw data

Background The increased demand for fish protein has led to the intensification of aquaculture practices which are hampered by nutritional and health factors affecting growth performance. To solve these problems, antibiotics have been used for many years in the prevention, control and treatment against disease as well as growth promoters to improve animal performance. Nowadays, the use of antibiotics in the European Union and other countries has been completely or partially banned as a result of the existence of antibiotic cross-resistance. Therefore, a number of alternatives, including enzymes, prebiotics, probiotics, phytonutrients and organic acids used alone or in combination have been proposed for the improvement of immunological state, growth performance and production in livestock animals. The aim of the present study was to evaluate two commercially available feed additives, one based on medium-chain fatty acids (MCFAs) from coconut oil and another with a Bacillus-based probiotic, in gilthead sea bream (GSB, Sparus aurata), a marine farmed fish of high value in the Mediterranean aquaculture. Methods The potential benefits of adding two commercial feed additives on fish growth performance and intestinal health were assessed in a 100-days feeding trial. The experimental diets (D2 and D3) were prepared by supplementing a basal diet (D1) with MCFAs in the form of a sodium salt of coconut fatty acid distillate (DICOSAN®; Norel, Madrid, Spain), rich on C-12, added at 0.3% (D2) or with the probiotic Bacillus amyloliquefaciens CECT 5940, added at 0.1% (D3). The study integrated data on growth performance, blood biochemistry, histology and intestinal gene expression patterns of selected markers of intestinal function and architecture. Results MCFAs in the form of a coconut oil increased feed intake, growth rates and the surface of nutrient absorption, promoting the anabolic action of the somatotropic axis. The probiotic (D3) induced anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant effects with changes in circulating cortisol, immunoglobulin M, leukocyte respiratory burst, and mucosal expression levels of cytokines, lymphocyte markers and immunoglobulin T. Discussion MCFA supplementation showed positive effects on GSB growth and intestinal architecture acting mainly in the anterior intestine, where absorption takes place. The probiotic B. amyloliquefaciens CECT 5940 exhibited key effects in the regulation of the immune status inducing anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant effects which can be potentially advantageous upon infection or exposure to other stressors. The potential effects of these feed additives in GSB are very promising to improve health and disease resistance in aquaculture

Post weaning diarrhea in pigs: risk factors and non‑colistin‑based control strategies

Post-weaning diarrhea (PWD) is one of the most serious threats for the swine industry worldwide. It is commonly associated with the proliferation of enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli in the pig intestine. Colistin, a cationic antibiotic, is widely used in swine for the oral treatment of intestinal infections caused by E. coli, and particularly of PWD. However, despite the effectiveness of this antibiotic in the treatment of PWD, several studies have reported high rates of colistin resistant E. coli in swine. Furthermore, this antibiotic is considered of very high importance in humans, being used for the treatment of infections due to multidrug-resistant (MDR) Gram-negative bacteria (GNB). Moreover, the recent discovery of the mcr-1 gene encoding for colistin resistance in Enterobacteriaceae on a conjugative stable plasmid has raised great concern about the possible loss of colistin effectiveness for the treatment of MDR-GNB in humans. Consequently, it has been proposed that the use of colistin in animal production should be considered as a last resort treatment only. Thus, to overcome the economic losses, which would result from the restriction of use of colistin, especially for prophylactic purposes in PWD control, we believe that an understanding of the factors contributing to the development of this disease and the putting in place of practical alternative strategies for the control of PWD in swine is crucial. Such alternatives should improve animal gut health and reduce economic losses in pigs without promoting bacterial resistance. The present review begins with an overview of risk factors of PWD and an update of colistin use in PWD control worldwide in terms of quantities and microbiological outcomes. Subsequently, alternative strategies to the use of colistin for the control of this disease are described and discussed. Finally, a practical approach for the control of PWD in its various phases is proposed