Challenging Varieties of Capitalism's Account of Business Interests: The New Social Market Initiative and German Employers' Quest for Liberalization, 2000-2014

Do employers in coordinated market economies (CME's) actively defend the non-liberal, market- constraining institutions upon which their strategic coordination and competitive success depends? This paper revisits the debate over firms' employer preferences with an in-depth examination of employers in Germany - a paradigmatic CME and crucial "test case" for Varieties of Capitalism. It is based on interviews with key officials and an in-depth examination of a large-scale campaign - the New Social Market Initiative or INMS - founded and funded by German metalworking employers to shape public opinion. The paper argues that German employers have a strong preference for liberalization: they have pushed hard for the liberalization of labor markets, the reduction of government expenditures, the expansion of market-oriented freedoms, and cuts to social protection, employment protection and benefit entitlements. I find no empirical support for the claim that the INSM is an attempt to appease discontented firms within employers' associations. On the contrary: for many employers, the Agenda 2010 reforms did not go far enough. Following the discrediting of the Anglo-American model in the financial crisis, far-reaching concessions by employees, and the unexpected revitalization of the German economy, employers have moderated their demands - but liberalization remains their default preference. This paper also addresses the role of ideas and the conditions under which employer campaigns can influence policy.Verteidigen Arbeitgeber in koordinierten Marktwirtschaften aktiv die nichtliberalen, marktbeschränkenden Institutionen, von denen ihre Möglichkeiten zur strategischen Koordination und ihr Erfolg im Wettbewerb abhängen? Mit einer umfassenden Untersuchung der Präferenzen von Arbeitgebern in Deutschland, das als typisches Beispiel einer koordinierten Marktwirtschaft und wegweisender "Testfall" für die Theorie über Spielarten des Kapitalismus gilt, greift dieses Discussion Paper die Debatte über die Präferenzen von Unternehmen in ihrer Eigenschaft als Arbeitgeber auf. Es basiert auf Interviews mit führenden Arbeitgeberfunktionären sowie einer detaillierten Untersuchung der Initiative Neue Soziale Marktwirtschaft (INSM): einer groß angelegten, von deutschen Metallarbeitgebern initiierten und finanzierten Kampagne zur öffentlichen Meinungsbildung. Der Beitrag belegt eine deutliche Präferenz deutscher Arbeitgeber für die Liberalisierung. Mit Nachdruck haben sie sich für eine Liberalisierung der Arbeitsmärkte, eine Senkung der Staatsausgaben und eine Ausweitung marktorientierter Gestaltungsfreiheiten ebenso eingesetzt wie für Einschnitte bei der sozialen Sicherung, dem Kündigungsschutz und den Versorgungsansprüchen. Die Behauptung, die INSM sei ein Versuch, unzufriedene Unternehmen innerhalb der Arbeitgeberverbände zu beschwichtigen, lässt sich durch die empirischen Befunde nicht stützen. Im Gegenteil: Vielen Arbeitgebern gingen die Reformen im Zuge der Agenda 2010 nicht weit genug. Zwar haben die deutschen Arbeitgeber nach der Diskreditierung des angloamerikanischen Modells während der Finanzkrise, weitreichenden Zugeständnissen seitens der Arbeitnehmer sowie der unerwarteten Wiederbelebung der deutschen Wirtschaft ihre Forderungen gemäßigt - doch bleibt ihre grundlegende Präferenz für die Liberalisierung bestehen. Dieser Beitrag befasst sich außerdem mit der Rolle von Ideen sowie den Bedingungen, unter denen Arbeitgeberkampagnen politische Maßnahmen beeinflussen können

Gut-expressed gustducin and taste receptors regulate secretion of glucagon-like peptide-1

Glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1), released from gut endocrine L cells in response to glucose, regulates appetite, insulin secretion, and gut motility. How glucose given orally, but not systemically, induces GLP-1 secretion is unknown. We show that human duodenal L cells express sweet taste receptors, the taste G protein gustducin, and several other taste transduction elements. Mouse intestinal L cells also express α-gustducin. Ingestion of glucose by α-gustducin null mice revealed deficiencies in secretion of GLP-1 and the regulation of plasma insulin and glucose. Isolated small bowel and intestinal villi from α-gustducin null mice showed markedly defective GLP-1 secretion in response to glucose. The human L cell line NCI-H716 expresses α-gustducin, taste receptors, and several other taste signaling elements. GLP-1 release from NCI-H716 cells was promoted by sugars and the noncaloric sweetener sucralose, and blocked by the sweet receptor antagonist lactisole or siRNA for α-gustducin. We conclude that L cells of the gut “taste” glucose through the same mechanisms used by taste cells of the tongue. Modulating GLP-1 secretion in gut “taste cells” may provide an important treatment for obesity, diabetes and abnormal gut motility

Soft Law as a New Mode of Governance: A Legal Perspective

After a brief review of the history and typology of soft law in public international law, we approach the concept deductively. We reject the binary view and subscribe to the continuum view. Building on the idea of graduated normativity and on the prototype theory of concepts, we submit that soft law is in the penumbra of law. It can be distinguished from purely political documents more or less readily, depending on its closeness to the prototype of law. Insights gained by the study of public international soft law are relevant to EC and EU soft law despite some differences between those legal orders. European soft law is created by institutions, Member States, and private actors. The legal effects of soft law acts can be clustered according to their relation to hard law. Both practical and normative considerations motivate reliance on soft law. An examination of the soft legal consequences of a disregard of soft law shows that compliance control mechanisms for hard and soft international law are converging. Moreover, some factors of compliance are independent of the theoretical hardness or softness of a given norm. In a legal policy perspective, the proliferation of soft law carries both dangers and benefits. Especially soft acts with a lawplus function do not weaken the respective regimes, but perfect them

Measurement of charged particle spectra in minimum-bias events from proton-proton collisions at root s =13 TeV

Pseudorapidity, transverse momentum, and multiplicity distributions are measured in the pseudorapidity range vertical bar eta vertical bar 0.5 GeV in proton-proton collisions at a center-of-mass energy of root s = 13 TeV. Measurements are presented in three different event categories. The most inclusive of the categories corresponds to an inelastic pp data set, while the other two categories are exclusive subsets of the inelastic sample that are either enhanced or depleted in single diffractive dissociation events. The measurements are compared to predictions from Monte Carlo event generators used to describe high-energy hadronic interactions in collider and cosmic-ray physics.Peer reviewe