Formation and evolution of the protoplanetary disk

A disk formation model during collapse of the protosolar nebula, yielding a low-mass protoplanetary disk is presented. The following subject areas are covered: (1) circumstellar disks; (2) conditions for the formation of stars with disks; (3) early evolution of the protoplanetary disk; and (4) temperature conditions and the convection in the protoplanetary disk

Possible sources of H2 to H2O enrichment at evaporation of parent chondritic material

One of the results obtained from thermodynamic simulation of recondensation of the source chondritic material is that at 1500-1800 K it's possible to form iron-rich olivine by reaction between enstatite, metallic iron and water vapor in the case of (H2O)/(H2) approximately equal to 0.1. This could be reached if the gas depletion in hydrogen is 200-300 times relative to solar abundance. To get this range of depletion one needs some source material more rich in hydrogen than the carbonaceous CI material which is the richest in volatiles among chondrites. In the case of recondensation at impact heating and evaporation of colliding planetesimals composed of CI material, we obtain insufficiently high value of (H2)/(H2O) ratio. In the present paper we consider some possible source materials and physical conditions necessary to reach gas composition with (H2)/(H2O) approximately 10 at high temperature

The angular momentum of two collided rarefied preplanetesimals and the formation of binaries

This paper studies the mean angular momentum associated with the collision of two celestial objects in the earliest stages of planet formation. Of primary concern is the scenario of two rarefied preplanetesimals (RPPs) in circular heliocentric orbits. The theoretical results are used to develop models of binary or multiple system formation from RPPs, and explain the observation that a greater fraction of binaries originated farther from the Sun. At the stage of RPPs, small-body satellites can form in two ways: a merger between RPPs can have two centers of contraction, or the formation of satellites from a disc around the primary or the secondary. Formation of the disc can be caused by that the angular momentum of the RPP formed by the merger is greater than the critical angular momentum for a solid body. One or several satellites of the primary (moving mainly in low-eccentricity orbits) can be formed from this disc at any separation less than the Hill radius. The first scenario can explain a system such as 2001 QW322 where the two components have similar masses but are separated by a great distance. In general, any values for the eccentricity and inclination of the mutual orbit are possible. Among discovered binaries, the observed angular momenta are smaller than the typical angular momenta expected for identical RPPs having the same total mass as the discovered binary and encountering each other in circular heliocentric orbits. This suggests that the population of RPPs underwent some contraction before mergers became common.Comment: 12 pages, Monthly Notices of Royal Astron. Society, in pres

Constraints from deuterium on the formation of icy bodies in the Jovian system and beyond

We consider the role of deuterium as a potential marker of location and ambient conditions during the formation of small bodies in our Solar system. We concentrate in particular on the formation of the regular icy satellites of Jupiter and the other giant planets, but include a discussion of the implications for the Trojan asteroids and the irregular satellites. We examine in detail the formation of regular planetary satellites within the paradigm of a circum-Jovian subnebula. Particular attention is paid to the two extreme potential subnebulae - "hot" and "cold". In particular, we show that, for the case of the "hot" subnebula model, the D:H ratio in water ice measured from the regular satellites would be expected to be near-Solar. In contrast, satellites which formed in a "cold" subnebula would be expected to display a D:H ratio that is distinctly over-Solar. We then compare the results obtained with the enrichment regimes which could be expected for other families of icy small bodies in the outer Solar system - the Trojan asteroids and the irregular satellites. In doing so, we demonstrate how measurements by Laplace, the James Webb Space Telescope, HERSCHEL and ALMA will play an important role in determining the true formation locations and mechanisms of these objects.Comment: Accepted and shortly to appear in Planetary and Space Science; 11 pages with 5 figure

A Gas-poor Planetesimal Capture Model for the Formation of Giant Planet Satellite Systems

Assuming that an unknown mechanism (e.g., gas turbulence) removes most of the subnebula gas disk in a timescale shorter than that for satellite formation, we develop a model for the formation of regular (and possibly at least some of the irregular) satellites around giant planets in a gas-poor environment. In this model, which follows along the lines of the work of Safronov et al. (1986), heliocentric planetesimals collide within the planet's Hill sphere and generate a circumplanetary disk of prograde and retrograde satellitesimals extending as far out as $\sim R_H/2$. At first, the net angular momentum of this proto-satellite swarm is small, and collisions among satellitesimals leads to loss of mass from the outer disk, and delivers mass to the inner disk (where regular satellites form) in a timescale $\lesssim 10^5$ years. This mass loss may be offset by continued collisional capture of sufficiently small $< 1$ km interlopers resulting from the disruption of planetesimals in the feeding zone of the giant planet. As the planet's feeding zone is cleared in a timescale $\lesssim 10^5$ years, enough angular momentum may be delivered to the proto-satellite swarm to account for the angular momentum of the regular satellites of Jupiter and Saturn.(abridged)Comment: 45 pages, 11 figures, 3 appendices, uses rgfmacro.tex, accepted for publication to Icaru

Conditions for water ice lines and Mars-mass exomoons around accreting super-Jovian planets at 1−20 AU from Sun-like stars

Context. The first detection of a moon around an extrasolar planet (an “exomoon”) might be feasible with NASA’s Kepler or ESA’s upcoming PLATO space telescopes or with the future ground-based European Extremely Large Telescope. To guide observers and to use observational resources most efficiently, we need to know where the largest, most easily detected moons can form. Aims. We explore the possibility of large exomoons by following the movement of water (H2O) ice lines in the accretion disks around young super-Jovian planets. We want to know how the different heating sources in those disks affect the location of the H2O ice lines as a function of stellar and planetary distance. Methods. We simulate 2D rotationally symmetric accretion disks in hydrostatic equilibrium around super-Jovian exoplanets. The energy terms in our semi-analytical framework – (1) viscous heating; (2) planetary illumination; (3) accretional heating of the disk; and (4) stellar illumination – are fed by precomputed planet evolution models. We consider accreting planets with final masses between 1 and 12 Jupiter masses at distances between 1 and 20 AU to a solar type star. Results. Accretion disks around Jupiter-mass planets closer than about 4.5 AU to Sun-like stars do not feature H2O ice lines, whereas the most massive super-Jovians can form icy satellites as close as 3 AU to Sun-like stars. We derive an empirical formula for the total moon mass as a function of planetary mass and stellar distance and predict that super-Jovian planets forming beyond about 5 AU can host Mars-mass moons. Planetary illumination is the major heat source in the final stages of accretion around Jupiter-mass planets, whereas disks around the most massive super-Jovians are similarly heated by planetary illumination and viscous heating. This indicates a transition towards circumstellar accretion disks, where viscous heating dominates in the stellar vicinity. We also study a broad range of circumplanetary disk parameters for planets at 5.2 AU and find that the H2O ice lines are universally between about 15 and 30 Jupiter radii in the final stages of accretion when the last generation of moons is supposed to form. Conclusions. If the abundant population of super-Jovian planets around 1 AU formed in situ, then these planets should lack the previously predicted population of giant icy moons, because those planets’ disks did not host H2O ice in the final stages of accretion. But in the more likely case that these planets migrated to their current locations from beyond about 3 to 4.5 AU they might be orbited by large, water-rich moons. In this case, Mars-mass ocean moons might be common in the stellar habitable zones. Future exomoon detections and non-detections can provide powerful constraints on the formation and migration history of giant exoplanets