Global burden of 369 diseases and injuries in 204 countries and territories, 1990–2019: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019

Background: In an era of shifting global agendas and expanded emphasis on non-communicable diseases and injuries along with communicable diseases, sound evidence on trends by cause at the national level is essential. The Global Burden of Diseases, Injuries, and Risk Factors Study (GBD) provides a systematic scientific assessment of published, publicly available, and contributed data on incidence, prevalence, and mortality for a mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive list of diseases and injuries. Methods: GBD estimates incidence, prevalence, mortality, years of life lost (YLLs), years lived with disability (YLDs), and disability-adjusted life-years (DALYs) due to 369 diseases and injuries, for two sexes, and for 204 countries and territories. Input data were extracted from censuses, household surveys, civil registration and vital statistics, disease registries, health service use, air pollution monitors, satellite imaging, disease notifications, and other sources. Cause-specific death rates and cause fractions were calculated using the Cause of Death Ensemble model and spatiotemporal Gaussian process regression. Cause-specific deaths were adjusted to match the total all-cause deaths calculated as part of the GBD population, fertility, and mortality estimates. Deaths were multiplied by standard life expectancy at each age to calculate YLLs. A Bayesian meta-regression modelling tool, DisMod-MR 2.1, was used to ensure consistency between incidence, prevalence, remission, excess mortality, and cause-specific mortality for most causes. Prevalence estimates were multiplied by disability weights for mutually exclusive sequelae of diseases and injuries to calculate YLDs. We considered results in the context of the Socio-demographic Index (SDI), a composite indicator of income per capita, years of schooling, and fertility rate in females younger than 25 years. Uncertainty intervals (UIs) were generated for every metric using the 25th and 975th ordered 1000 draw values of the posterior distribution. Findings: Global health has steadily improved over the past 30 years as measured by age-standardised DALY rates. After taking into account population growth and ageing, the absolute number of DALYs has remained stable. Since 2010, the pace of decline in global age-standardised DALY rates has accelerated in age groups younger than 50 years compared with the 1990–2010 time period, with the greatest annualised rate of decline occurring in the 0–9-year age group. Six infectious diseases were among the top ten causes of DALYs in children younger than 10 years in 2019: lower respiratory infections (ranked second), diarrhoeal diseases (third), malaria (fifth), meningitis (sixth), whooping cough (ninth), and sexually transmitted infections (which, in this age group, is fully accounted for by congenital syphilis; ranked tenth). In adolescents aged 10–24 years, three injury causes were among the top causes of DALYs: road injuries (ranked first), self-harm (third), and interpersonal violence (fifth). Five of the causes that were in the top ten for ages 10–24 years were also in the top ten in the 25–49-year age group: road injuries (ranked first), HIV/AIDS (second), low back pain (fourth), headache disorders (fifth), and depressive disorders (sixth). In 2019, ischaemic heart disease and stroke were the top-ranked causes of DALYs in both the 50–74-year and 75-years-and-older age groups. Since 1990, there has been a marked shift towards a greater proportion of burden due to YLDs from non-communicable diseases and injuries. In 2019, there were 11 countries where non-communicable disease and injury YLDs constituted more than half of all disease burden. Decreases in age-standardised DALY rates have accelerated over the past decade in countries at the lower end of the SDI range, while improvements have started to stagnate or even reverse in countries with higher SDI. Interpretation: As disability becomes an increasingly large component of disease burden and a larger component of health expenditure, greater research and developm nt investment is needed to identify new, more effective intervention strategies. With a rapidly ageing global population, the demands on health services to deal with disabling outcomes, which increase with age, will require policy makers to anticipate these changes. The mix of universal and more geographically specific influences on health reinforces the need for regular reporting on population health in detail and by underlying cause to help decision makers to identify success stories of disease control to emulate, as well as opportunities to improve. Funding: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation. © 2020 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an Open Access article under the CC BY 4.0 licens

Effects of Ferrocenyl Proximity and Monomer Presence during Oxidation for the Redox-Switchable Polymerization of l‑Lactide

A titanium­(IV) salfen catalyst bearing a redox-active ferrocenyl center in close proximity to the active metal site was examined for the redox-switchable polymerization of l-lactide. The catalyst displayed an atypical β-cis geometry in both the solid- and solution-states, and placement of the redox-active moiety in close proximity to the active metal site was shown to provide an enhancement in catalytic “on–off–on” switching behavior when the redox events were performed in the presence of lactide monomer. More importantly, when comparing oxidized and reduced catalytic species, completely contrasting trends in polymerization behavior were observed, depending on whether the catalyst was oxidized in the absence or in the presence of lactide monomer. On the basis of NMR spectroscopic analysis, we propose that this unusual behavior is a result of a rapid switch in ligand coordination geometry that is facilitated by monomer coordination prior to any redox reactions. Additionally, when redox reactions were conducted in the absence of monomer, a trend in activity that contradicted those of all previously reported Ti-based redox-active catalysts was observed

Redox-Active Ligands: An Advanced Tool To Modulate Polyethylene Microstructure

The ability to control catalytic activity and selectivity via <i>in situ</i> changes in catalyst oxidation-state represents an intriguing tool for enhanced polymerization control. Herein, we report foundational evidence that catalysts bearing redox-active moieties may be used to synthesize high molecular weight polyethylene with tailored microstructure. The ability to modulate branching density and identity is facilitated by ligand-based redox chemistry, and is realized via the addition of chemical reductants into the polymerization reactor. Detailed GPC and NMR analyses demonstrate that branching density may be altered by up to ∼30% as a function of <i>in situ</i> added reductant

Synthesis of Enantiomerically Pure Lignin Dimer Models for Catalytic Selectivity Studies

A series of highly enantioselective transformations, such as the Sharpless asymmetric epoxidation and Jacobsen hydrolytic kinetic resolution, were utilized to achieve the complete stereoselective synthesis of β-O-4 lignin dimer models containing the S, G, and H subunits with excellent <i>ee</i> (>99%) and moderate to high yields. This unprecedented synthetic method can be exploited for enzymatic, microbial, and chemical investigations into lignin’s degradation and depolymerization as related to its stereochemical constitution. Preliminary degradation studies using enantiopure Co­(salen) catalysts are also reported

Catalytic Arene H/D Exchange with Novel Rhodium and Iridium Complexes

Three novel pendant acetate complexes, [Rh­(bdmpza)­Cl₃]⁻M⁺, [Rh­(bdmpza)­Cl₂(py)], and [Ir­(bdmpza)­Cl₃]⁻M⁺ (bdmpza = bis­(3,5-dimethylpyrazol-1-yl) acetate, M⁺ = Li⁺, Na⁺), were synthesized. Abstraction of halide from these complexes with silver salts yielded species capable of C–H activation of arenes. The catalytic H/D exchange reaction between benzene and trifluoroacetic acid-<i>d</i> was optimized, and these conditions were used to evaluate H/D exchange in other arenes. Branched alkyl substituents in alkyl aromatics showed an affinity toward deuterium exchange in the β-alkyl position only. DFT calculations were performed to determine the mechanism of H/D exchange

Catalytic Arene H/D Exchange with Novel Rhodium and Iridium Complexes

Three novel pendant acetate complexes, [Rh­(bdmpza)­Cl₃]⁻M⁺, [Rh­(bdmpza)­Cl₂(py)], and [Ir­(bdmpza)­Cl₃]⁻M⁺ (bdmpza = bis­(3,5-dimethylpyrazol-1-yl) acetate, M⁺ = Li⁺, Na⁺), were synthesized. Abstraction of halide from these complexes with silver salts yielded species capable of C–H activation of arenes. The catalytic H/D exchange reaction between benzene and trifluoroacetic acid-<i>d</i> was optimized, and these conditions were used to evaluate H/D exchange in other arenes. Branched alkyl substituents in alkyl aromatics showed an affinity toward deuterium exchange in the β-alkyl position only. DFT calculations were performed to determine the mechanism of H/D exchange