Swimming Upstream: A Legal Analysis Of Listing Atlantic Salmon As An Endangered Species

In 1993, a group of conservationists, concerned with the survival of the Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar), petitioned the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) and the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) (collectively, Services) to list anadromous Atlantic salmon as endangered throughout their historic range in the United States. The petition, authorized under Section 4 of the Endangered Species Act (ESA), presented information on declines of Atlantic salmon populations, threats to the fish consisting of commercial and sport fishing, pollution, barriers to their migration, adverse land use practices, and genetic disruption. In response to the petition, the Services published a ninety-day finding that stated that the petition contained substantial information and that the requested listing may be warranted. In 1995, after examining the data on Atlantic salmon described in the petition, a biological review team concluded that the salmon did not meet the definition of a species for purposes of the ESA. As such, the Services decided the request to list the salmon throughout its U.S. historic range was not warranted. Alternatively, the Services determined that there was a group of salmon, identified in seven rivers (later eight rivers), that met the definition of a distinct population segment (DPS) of Atlantic salmon that warranted protection as a species. The Services further indicated that a proposed rule to list the DPS was under development. Later in 1995, the Services published a proposed rule to list the DPS as threatened, rather than endangered, and a public comment period was opened. The proposed rule encouraged the State of Maine (State) to take a lead role and provide a conservation plan of its own that would reduce threats and promote conservation[.] The State, acting on the invitation, enacted legislation that established the Atlantic salmon Commission and developed an extensive conservation plan (State Plan). In December of 1997, after a public comment period and in light of the State Plan and other conservation measures, the Services published their intent not to list the DPS as threatened. The Services retained oversight of the conservation efforts and required an annual report from-the State on the status of the program. In January of 1999, the State submitted its first annual report to the Services. Following a biological assessment team\u27s review of the report, which indicated that the DPS continued to decline, the Services decided that the Atlantic salmon should be listed as endangered. After publishing a proposed rule to list the DPS as endangered in November of 1999, the Services initiated a public hearing process. Twelve months later in November of 2000, the Services published their final determination that the DPS was endangered. Subsequent to the Services\u27 determination, the State filed suit against the Services and requested that the court set aside the rule listing the DPS as endangered on the grounds that the Services\u27 decision was, among other things, arbitrary and capricious and not based on the best scientific and commercial data available. In 2003, the U.S. District Court of the District of Maine held, in Maine v. Norton, that the Services\u27 determination of endangered status was supported by the facts in the record, and thus was not arbitrary or capricious. This paper will examine the implications of the salmon listing as it affects the relationship Maine citizens have with their environment and the economy of the State. Part One provides background on the natural, socioeconomic, and legal landscapes that are tied together in the federal government\u27s efforts to protect a distinct segment of Maine\u27s wild Atlantic salmon. Part Two presents the chronology of federal, state, commercial, and Non-Governmental Organization (NGO) actions that have shaped, and have been shaped by, the implementation of the ESA. It includes a relevant discussion of the ESA implementation process, from listing consideration through critical habitat designation, and Section 4(d) take delineation. Part Three focuses on critical habitat protection in the context of the ESA, judicial interpretation of habitat statutes, and how well critical habitat protection is working generally. Part Four considers the implementation of the ESA within the context of the DPS of Maine Salmon and suggests that, while the ESA does not allow implementation to be whittled away by socioeconomic concerns, implementation of the ESA may be structured to accommodate the various stakeholders, but in the current state of implementation, problems can be anticipated

Swimming Upstream: A Legal Analysis Of Listing Atlantic Salmon As An Endangered Species

In 1993, a group of conservationists, concerned with the survival of the Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar), petitioned the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) and the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) (collectively, Services) to list anadromous Atlantic salmon as endangered throughout their historic range in the United States. The petition, authorized under Section 4 of the Endangered Species Act (ESA), presented information on declines of Atlantic salmon populations, threats to the fish consisting of commercial and sport fishing, pollution, barriers to their migration, adverse land use practices, and genetic disruption. In response to the petition, the Services published a ninety-day finding that stated that the petition contained substantial information and that the requested listing may be warranted. In 1995, after examining the data on Atlantic salmon described in the petition, a biological review team concluded that the salmon did not meet the definition of a species for purposes of the ESA. As such, the Services decided the request to list the salmon throughout its U.S. historic range was not warranted. Alternatively, the Services determined that there was a group of salmon, identified in seven rivers (later eight rivers), that met the definition of a distinct population segment (DPS) of Atlantic salmon that warranted protection as a species. The Services further indicated that a proposed rule to list the DPS was under development. Later in 1995, the Services published a proposed rule to list the DPS as threatened, rather than endangered, and a public comment period was opened. The proposed rule encouraged the State of Maine (State) to take a lead role and provide a conservation plan of its own that would reduce threats and promote conservation[.] The State, acting on the invitation, enacted legislation that established the Atlantic salmon Commission and developed an extensive conservation plan (State Plan). In December of 1997, after a public comment period and in light of the State Plan and other conservation measures, the Services published their intent not to list the DPS as threatened. The Services retained oversight of the conservation efforts and required an annual report from-the State on the status of the program. In January of 1999, the State submitted its first annual report to the Services. Following a biological assessment team\u27s review of the report, which indicated that the DPS continued to decline, the Services decided that the Atlantic salmon should be listed as endangered. After publishing a proposed rule to list the DPS as endangered in November of 1999, the Services initiated a public hearing process. Twelve months later in November of 2000, the Services published their final determination that the DPS was endangered. Subsequent to the Services\u27 determination, the State filed suit against the Services and requested that the court set aside the rule listing the DPS as endangered on the grounds that the Services\u27 decision was, among other things, arbitrary and capricious and not based on the best scientific and commercial data available. In 2003, the U.S. District Court of the District of Maine held, in Maine v. Norton, that the Services\u27 determination of endangered status was supported by the facts in the record, and thus was not arbitrary or capricious. This paper will examine the implications of the salmon listing as it affects the relationship Maine citizens have with their environment and the economy of the State. Part One provides background on the natural, socioeconomic, and legal landscapes that are tied together in the federal government\u27s efforts to protect a distinct segment of Maine\u27s wild Atlantic salmon. Part Two presents the chronology of federal, state, commercial, and Non-Governmental Organization (NGO) actions that have shaped, and have been shaped by, the implementation of the ESA. It includes a relevant discussion of the ESA implementation process, from listing consideration through critical habitat designation, and Section 4(d) take delineation. Part Three focuses on critical habitat protection in the context of the ESA, judicial interpretation of habitat statutes, and how well critical habitat protection is working generally. Part Four considers the implementation of the ESA within the context of the DPS of Maine Salmon and suggests that, while the ESA does not allow implementation to be whittled away by socioeconomic concerns, implementation of the ESA may be structured to accommodate the various stakeholders, but in the current state of implementation, problems can be anticipated

Electric Double-Refraction in Carbon Disulphide at Low Potentials

When light polarized at an angle of forty-five degrees to the lines of force is passed through certain dielectrics, between two parallel electrodes, they become double-refracting. The difference of phase, delta, between the two components of light at right angles and parallel to the lines of force, as represented by Kerr and verified by later investigators, is δ = ± BP2l/a2 where B is the electro-optic constant, depending on, the dielectric, I the length, and a the distance between the plate\u27 electrodes in centimeters, and P the difference of potential between the electrodes in C.G.S. units. From data obtained in this investigation, there seems to be a decided variation from the above law for low potentials. As the potential was decreased from about 200 volts per millimeter of distance between the electrodes, the decrease of δ was in a smaller ratio than the decrease of P2

Some Operational Aspects of the General Rental Industry

There is evidence that the rental industry has now matured to a point where significant management principles have evolved and with them accounting sophistication both of which are necessary for critical analysis. The purpose of this study was to establish an analytical framework with which investors, creditors, and other interested parties might determine the feasibility of establishing new businesses or expanding old ones, or for use in correcting deficiencies in operating results of existing ones. Financial analysis relies rather heavily on ratios as standards, or measures for comparisons. Ratios, in this context, can be in any form that relates one quality to another, whether they expressed in terms of percentages, fractions, or in some other form. The objectives of this study, then were: 1. To establish for the rental industry reliable rations that can be used by financial and business communities. 2. To analyze the rations established, pointing out the factors that contribute to the over-all profitability of the firm

Estereotipos familiares en la vinculación de mujeres adolescentes de 12 a 15 años de edad a la subcultura juvenil Skaters del barrio Techo localidad Kennedy - Bogotá

La elaboración de este proyecto radica en que la población juvenil está siendo invadida y atravesada por estereotipos y/o modelos de adolescencia en donde prima la imagen, la autoestima, el reconocimiento y en mayor relevancia, el poder pertenecer a un grupo específico de pares denominado subcultura, Elikind 1965 como lo cita Paramo 2008 (pág. 50) se refería a esto como la “fábula personal”: un aumento de percepción y comparación social, que se inscribe en el proceso de autopercepción en esta etapa del ciclo vital. Este hecho confunde a quienes están por fuera de esta etapa de la vida y en especial a los padres de familia de estos adolescentes, ya que mediante los estereotipos, paradigmas sociales, imaginarios colectivos, y demás construcciones erróneas del colectivo social, permiten y facilitan la confusión y sesgo de la subjetividad e intersubjetividad en relación al significado que tiene este tipo de conductas latentes en el contexto de la población juvenil con el crecimiento personal y el desarrollo como individuo. Día a día se va incrementando la población que toma la decisión de pertenecer a una subcultura juvenil, ya sea por iniciativa propia o por influencia de los demás pares, que intervienen en su proceso de desarrollo, esto con el fin de demostrarse a sí mismo la capacidad de interacción con los demás y la aceptación por parte de un grupo de pares determinados o encasillados en una subcultura o finalidad compartida. Cabe resaltar que el adolescente mediante la aceptación de un grupo de similares crea vínculos sociales, facilitándole la participación en diversas actividades con numerosos grupos poblacionales; es decir adquiere competencias comunicativas y relacionales que le fortalecen indirectamente la autoestima y el auto-concepto, generando en él habilidades sociales para la interacción con los demás miembros del grupo juvenil al que pertenece.The elaboration of this project is that the youth population is being invaded and crossed by stereotypes and / or models of adolescence where the image, self-esteem, recognition and in greater relevance, being able to belong to a specific group of peers called Subculture, Elikind 1965 as cited by Paramo 2008 (p. 50) referred to this as the "personal fable": an increase in social perception and comparison, which is part of the process of self-perception at this stage of the life cycle. This fact confuses those who are outside this stage of life and especially the parents of these adolescents, since through stereotypes, social paradigms, collective imaginary, and other erroneous constructions of the social collective, they allow and facilitate the confusion and bias of subjectivity and intersubjectivity in relation to the meaning of this type of latent behavior in the context of the youth population with personal growth and development as an individual. Day by day the population that makes the decision to belong to a youth subculture is increasing, either on its own initiative or by the influence of the other peers, who are involved in its development process, this in order to demonstrate itself the ability to interact with others and acceptance by a group of peers determined or typecast in a subculture or shared purpose. It should be noted that the adolescent by accepting a group of similar creates social ties, facilitating the participation in various activities with numerous population groups; that is, it acquires communicative and relational competencies that indirectly strengthen self-esteem and self-concept, generating in it social skills for interaction with the other members of the youth group to which it belongs.1. Planteamiento del problema. -- 2. Pregunta de investigación. -- 3. Justificación. -- 4. Marco referencial. -- 5. Marco teórico. -- 6. Objetivos. -- 7. Diseño Metodológico. -- 8. Referencias Bibliográfica

Potent inhibition of microRNA in vivo without degradation

Chemically modified antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs) are widely used as a tool to functionalize microRNAs (miRNAs). Reduction of miRNA level after ASO inhibition is commonly reported to show efficacy. Whether this is the most relevant endpoint for measuring miRNA inhibition has not been adequately addressed in the field although it has important implications for evaluating miRNA targeting studies. Using a novel approach to quantitate miRNA levels in the presence of excess ASO, we have discovered that the outcome of miRNA inhibition can vary depending on the chemical modification of the ASO. Although some miRNA inhibitors cause a decrease in mature miRNA levels, we have identified a novel 2′-fluoro/2′-methoxyethyl modified ASO motif with dramatically improved in vivo potency which does not. These studies show there are multiple mechanisms of miRNA inhibition by ASOs and that evaluation of secondary endpoints is crucial for interpreting miRNA inhibition studies

Silencing microRNA by interfering nanoparticles in mice

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small endogenous non-coding RNAs that regulate post-transcriptional gene expression and are important in many biological processes. Disease-associated miRNAs have been shown to become potential targets for therapeutic intervention. Functions of miRNAs can be inhibited by using antisense oligonucleotides, called anti-miRs, complimentary to the miRNA sequences. Here, we show that systemic delivery of a chemically stabilized anti-miR-122 complexed with interfering nanoparticles (iNOPs) effectively silences the liver-expressed miR-122 in mice. Intravenous administration of 2 mg kg−1 chemically modified anti-miR-122 complexed with iNOP-7 resulted in 83.2 ± 3.2% specific silencing of miR-122, which was accompanied by regulating gene expression in liver and lowering of plasma cholesterol. The specific silencing of miR-122 was long lasting and did not induce an immune response. Our results demonstrate that iNOPs can successfully deliver anti-miR to specifically target and silence miRNA in clinically acceptable and therapeutically affordable doses

The crystal structure of an ‘All Locked’ nucleic acid duplex

‘Locked nucleic acids’ (LNAs) are known to introduce enhanced bio- and thermostability into natural nucleic acids rendering them powerful tools for diagnostic and therapeutic applications. We present the 1.9 Å X-ray structure of an ‘all LNA’ duplex containing exclusively modified β-d-2′-O-4′C-methylene ribofuranose nucleotides. The helix illustrates a new type of nucleic acid geometry that contributes to the understanding of the enhanced thermostability of LNA duplexes. A notable decrease of several local and overall helical parameters like twist, roll and propeller twist influence the structure of the LNA helix and result in a widening of the major groove, a decrease in helical winding and an enlarged helical pitch. A detailed structural comparison to the previously solved RNA crystal structure with the corresponding base pair sequence underlines the differences in conformation. The surrounding water network of the RNA and the LNA helix shows a similar hydration pattern

Targeted knock-down of miR21 primary transcripts using snoMEN vectors induces apoptosis in human cancer cell lines

We have previously reported an antisense technology, 'snoMEN vectors', for targeted knock-down of protein coding mRNAs using human snoRNAs manipulated to contain short regions of sequence complementarity with the mRNA target. Here we characterise the use of snoMEN vectors to target the knock-down of micro RNA primary transcripts. We document the specific knock-down of miR21 in HeLa cells using plasmid vectors expressing miR21-targeted snoMEN RNAs and show this induces apoptosis. Knock-down is dependent on the presence of complementary sequences in the snoMEN vector and the induction of apoptosis can be suppressed by over-expression of miR21. Furthermore, we have also developed lentiviral vectors for delivery of snoMEN RNAs and show this increases the efficiency of vector transduction in many human cell lines that are difficult to transfect with plasmid vectors. Transduction of lentiviral vectors expressing snoMEN targeted to pri-miR21 induces apoptosis in human lung adenocarcinoma cells, which express high levels of miR21, but not in human primary cells. We show that snoMEN-mediated suppression of miRNA expression is prevented by siRNA knock-down of Ago2, but not by knock-down of Ago1 or Upf1. snoMEN RNAs colocalise with Ago2 in cell nuclei and nucleoli and can be co-immunoprecipitated from nuclear extracts by antibodies specific for Ago2

Prebiotic-Induced Anti-tumor Immunity Attenuates Tumor Growth

Growing evidence supports the importance of gut microbiota in the control of tumor growth and response to therapy. Here, we select prebiotics that can enrich bacterial taxa that promote anti-tu- mor immunity. Addition of the prebiotics inulin or mucin to the diet of C57BL/6 mice induces anti-tu- mor immune responses and inhibition of BRAF mutant melanoma growth in a subcutaneously implanted syngeneic mouse model. Mucin fails to inhibit tumor growth in germ-free mice, indicating that the gut microbiota is required for the activation of the anti-tumor immune response. Inulin and mucin drive distinct changes in the microbiota, as inulin, but not mucin, limits tumor growth in synge- neic mouse models of colon cancer and NRAS mutant melanoma and enhances the efficacy of a MEK inhibitor against melanoma while delaying the emergence of drug resistance. We highlight the importance of gut microbiota in anti-tumor immunity and the potential therapeutic role for prebiotics in this process