Land Degradation and Its Impacts on Ecosystem Services in the Nigerian Guinea Savannah: Implications for Sustainable Land Management

Land degradation is a major environmental concern. Globally, land degradation directly impacts about 1.5 to 3.2 billion people by affecting water and nutrient cycles, reducing food and biomass production, and adversely affecting livelihoods that are dependent on land and natural resources. Land degradation, its drivers, and its impacts manifest differently depending on the social and ecological contexts. Thus, attention to the context in analysing land degradation and its proximate and underlying causes will yield insights to foster sustainable land management (SLM). Although land degradation has been implicated in various environmental and development challenges in Africa, knowledge about land degradation in some regions remains inadequate to support the identification of SLM practices. The Guinea savannah zone in Nigeria is one such region, facing widespread and severe land degradation. The region has lost much of its native vegetation due to the combined effects of land degradation, deforestation, and land use changes. Land degradation has been associated with farmer–herder conflicts, communal clashes, out-migration, and food insecurity. These impacts are likely to worsen as climate change progresses and in the absence of SLM. Thus, the overarching aim of this study is to improve understanding of the spatial distribution of land degradation in the Nigerian Guinea Savannah (NGS) and its drivers and thus derive insights into the sustainable management of its land resources. The insights will also help inform pathways to achieving land degradation neutrality (LDN), a global environmental goal. Its objectives are to (1) assess human-induced biomass loss as a proxy for land degradation in the NGS; (2) identify characteristic patterns of social and ecological factors associated with land degradation in the region and analyse their implications for land governance and SLM; (3) examine land users’ perceptions of land degradation and its implications for SLM, using Niger state as a case study; and (4) examine the potentials for operationalizing LDN in Nigeria. These four objectives were addressed in four studies. The research questions were investigated with a mixed-methods approach combining satellite remote sensing data and analysis and geographic information systems (GIS) with field surveys, focus group discussions, key informant interviews, and a review of environmental policies in Nigeria. Results from assessing human-induced biomass loss, as a proxy for land degradation (Study 1) showed a declining trend in annual mean normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) and annual NDVI anomalies observed in the NGS between 2003 and 2018. The indices were from the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS). Overall, the study revealed that 38% (251K km2) of the NGS experienced degradation, 14% (91K km2) experienced improvement, and the remaining 48% (320K km2) was stable. Land degradation is mostly evident in states bordering the northwest to the central and northeast of the NGS, such as Niger state. These results show that land degradation affects a substantial part of the study area. Thus, identifying characteristic patterns of social and ecological factors associated with land degradation in the region and analysing their implications for land governance and SLM (Study 2) provided further insights. The archetype analysis identified nine archetypes dominated by (1) protected areas; (2) very high-density population; (3) moderately high information and knowledge access; (4) low literacy levels and moderately high poverty levels; (5) rural remoteness; (6) remoteness from a major road; (7) very high livestock density; (8) moderate poverty level and nearly level terrain; and (9) very rugged terrain remote from a major road. Among these archetypes, four archetypes characterized by very high-density population, moderately high information and knowledge access, and moderately high poverty level, as well as remoteness from a major town, were associated with 61.3% large-area degradation. The other five archetypes, covering 38.7% of the area, were associated with small-area degradation. Although the MODIS satellite analysis (Study 1) and the archetype analysis of spatial data on land degradation drivers, hint at the different types of land use and management including the ecological aspects of land degradation (Study 2), Study 3 examines the perspectives of land users on land degradation. A questionnaire survey was used to capture local land users’ perceptions of land degradation. The assessment of local land users’ perceptions of land degradation in predominantly rural remote farming communities was necessary to provide insights to further guide land governance and management. Thus, focused on the rural remote archetypes and its analysed communities far from major towns but with a moderately low prevalence of land degradation drivers such as population density, protected areas, and flat terrain. Using a case study on Niger state, an administrative unit in the NGS and a Principal Component Analysis, Study 3 identified key components in land users’ perceptions of land degradation characteristics and drivers and SLM. They include (1) four perception dimensions of land degradation characteristics: (2) two perception dimensions of land degradation drivers, and (3) six perception dimensions of sustainable land management. The four major dimensions of perceptions of land degradation in the study context include vegetation-condition-dominated characteristics, soil-condition-dominated characteristics, and vegetation with Sudano-Sahelian characteristics as well as land use land cover (LULC) with the prevalence of drier conditions. The two categories of land degradation drivers are human-activity-dominated drivers at a smaller scale and nature-dominated drivers at a larger scale. The two categories of land degradation drivers are human activities dominated drivers at a smaller scale and larger-scale drivers (nature-driven). The dimensions of SLM identified include institutional actors’ effect; natural resources management and environmentally friendly agricultural practices as well as tree-based initiatives; conservation initiatives and policy initiatives. The study showed that land degradation in Niger State is due to land use pressure from within the state and from migrant resource users with limited cultural attachments to local land management approaches. A spatial differentiation in dependence on natural resources showed that of the three geopolitical zones in Niger State, the zone with more diversified livelihood alternatives from agriculture, B, has less degradation than the other two zones, A and C. The archetypes approach (Study 2) identified policies and practices addressing increasing population in combination with other socio-economic factors such as poverty reduction as important. Other strategies include creating awareness about land degradation, the promotion of sustainable practices, and various forms of land restoration, such as tree planting, as ways of progressing towards LDN. In addition, Study 3 on key dimensions based on land users’ perceptions identified environmentally friendly agriculture initiatives such as farmer-managed natural regeneration and a bottom-up approach involving traditional village heads to tackle land degradation. Ranking of SLM using the relative importance index (RII) (Study 3) showed that land users perceive institutional actors (70.0%), technological practices (67.6%), conservation practices (66.8%), and policy initiatives (66.5%) as effective SLM. Connecting the insights from the three previous studies on land degradation in the NGS, Study 4 examined ways to operationalize LDN in Nigeria. Study 4 reviewed literature, assessed spatial datasets, and analysed national policies to examine the need to contextualize LDN according to the main agro-ecological zones in Nigeria, which include the NGS. The study also identified two promising entry points for operationalizing LDN; these are incentivizing and promoting SLM practices among local resource users and mainstreaming SLM initiatives in sectors such as agriculture and the environment. To support SLM measures, reform of national land use policy is needed to address the current limitations of land tenure in Nigeria. In conclusion, this study has identified large areas of the NGS affected by land degradation and identified the typologies of degradation extent, thus making it easier to target SLM measures. Because land degradation depends on land users’ perceptions and contexts, knowledge gained can inform approaches to motivate the land users themselves to address land degradation. Insights gained from the focus on the NGS have informed contributions to examine how changes in land use affect biodiversity and ecosystem services in the Río de la Plata grasslands (RPG), one of the most modified savannah biomes in the world, managed by Argentina, Brazil, and Uruguay. Results showed that a strict regulation of LULC change in the RGP is required to address land degradation. Studies in both contexts thus show the importance of appropriate policies to support SLM. These studies also highlight further research questions, such as what the key socio and economic determinants shaping land users’ perceptions of land degradation are and how land users prioritize ecosystem services, as additional pathways to align SLM practices to the social and ecological context

Youth Employment Creation as an Inclusive Solution for Sustainable Development: Lessons from the ‘Double You Digital Skills Initiative’ in Nigeria

Youth unemployment is one of the most pressing issues confronting world leaders in the 21st century. Youth unemployment has negative implications for economic and social progress. In Nigeria, youth unemployment hit an all-time high of 55.4% in the third quarter of 2018. With almost all sectors been digitalised, digital skills become one of the most promising solutions to youth unemployment. It is a necessity for wage employment and in the creation of a personal business. However, anecdotal and empirical evidence shows that many youths lack the requisite skills for using digital technology productively. Hence, there is an increase in international and local efforts toward digital skills training for youths. This study reports the findings from a pilot digital skills training programme organised by the Double You Initiative in July 2019. It was based on a quantitative research approach with the use of an online questionnaire to obtain information from youths across Nigeria through a purposive sampling technique. The findings show that youths within the ages of 19 and 24 will likely subscribe more to digital skills training than any other age group. Also, undergraduate students are more interested in digital skills training, and the most common digital skill preference among youths is digital marketing. The lessons from the digital skills training reported in this paper can be useful in enhancing the preparedness of stakeholders towards the provision of digital skills training that will promote decent jobs for youths in Nigeria

THE NEXUS BETWEEN HUMAN CAPITAL AND INCOME INEQUALITY: THE NIGERIAN EXPERIENCE

The study examines the relationship between human capital and income inequality in Nigeria from 1981 to 2019. The study made use of secondary data and the autoregressive distributed lag (ARDL) bounds test estimation technique to analyze the data. The variables used in the analysis include income inequality, tertiary education enrolment, secondary school enrolment, government health expenditure, inflation rate, employment rate and gdp per capita. The results of the findings showed that one-year lagged income inequality and secondary school enrolment are both significant at the 5% level. In the long run, tertiary education enrolment, secondary school enrolment, government expenditure on health and employment rate are all statistically significant at the 1% level. Thus, in the long run, all the indicators of human capital are significant drivers of income inequality in Nigeria. Notwithstanding, of all the indicators, only tertiary school enrolment is negatively related to income inequality, as expected. The implication is that, in Nigeria, it is tertiary school enrolment that significantly lowers income inequality. Sequel to the finding in respect of the importance of tertiary school enrolment, it is recommended that policy makers continually support enrolment to tertiary schools in order to continuously witness significant declines in income inequality in Nigeria

Impact of Oil and Non-oil Tax Revenue on Economic Growth in Nigeria

This study examined the impact of oil and non-oil tax revenue on economic growth in Nigeria. few works have covered oil and non-oil taxation and the relationship of petroleum profit tax (PPT), company income tax (CIT), value-added tax (VAT) and custom and excise duties tax (CED) on Real Gross Domestic Product of Nigeria. The study adopted an ex-post facto research design, and data were drawn from the annual reports of Central Bank of Nigeria and Federal Inland Revenue Services publications. Error Correction Model was employed to analyse the data collected after subjecting the series to unit root test and cointegration test. The result of the study showed that PPT with a coefficient of 31.71067 and p-value of 0.0004 and CED with a coefficient of 1.786145 and p-value if 0.0206 had a positive significant relationship with economic growth, while CIT with a coefficient of -14446.50 and p-value of 0.0066 and VAT with a coefficient of -23.33177 and p-value of 0.0001 had a negative significant relationship with economic. The study recommends that taxation be appropriately controlled to boost economic growth, lower inflation, and create jobs in the country. More attention to the channelling PPT and CED revenue collections to infrastructural developments will bring about the economic growth of the country

Towards onset prevention of cognition decline in adults with Down syndrome (The TOP-COG study): A pilot randomised controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: Dementia is very common in Down syndrome (trisomy 21) adults. Statins may slow brain amyloid β (Aβ, coded on chromosome 21) deposition and, therefore, delay Alzheimer disease onset. One prospective cohort study with Down syndrome adults found participants on statins had reduced risk of incident dementia, but there are no randomised controlled trials (RCTs) on this issue. Evidence is sparse on the best instruments to detect longitudinal cognitive decline in older Down syndrome adults. METHODS: TOP-COG was a feasibility/pilot, double-blind RCT of 12 months simvastatin 40 mg versus placebo for the primary prevention of dementia in Alzheimer disease in Down syndrome adults aged 50 years or older. Group allocation was stratified by age, apolipoprotein E (APOE) ε4 allele status, and cholesterol level. Recruitment was from multiple general community sources over 12 months. Adults with dementia, or simvastatin contraindications, were excluded. Main outcomes were recruitment and retention rates. Cognitive decline was measured with a battery of tests; secondary measures were adaptive behaviour skills, general health, and quality of life. Assessments were conducted pre randomisation and at 12 months post randomisation. Blood Aβ40/Aβ42 levels were investigated as a putative biomarker. Results were analysed on an intention-to-treat basis. A qualitative sub-study was conducted and analysed using the Framework Approach to determine recruitment motivators/barriers, and participation experience. RESULTS: We identified 181 (78 %) of the likely eligible Down syndrome population, and recruited 21 (11.6 %), from an area with a general population size of 3,135,974. Recruitment was highly labour-intensive. Thirteen (62 %) participants completed the full year. Results favoured the simvastatin group. The most appropriate cognitive instrument (regarding ease of completion and detecting change over time) was the Memory for Objects test from the Neuropsychological Assessment of Dementia in Individuals with Intellectual Disabilities battery. Cognitive testing appeared more sensitive than proxy-rated adaptive behaviour, quality of life, or general health scores. Aβ40 levels changed less for the simvastatin group (not statistically significant). People mostly declined to participate because of not wanting to take medication, and not knowing if they would receive simvastatin or placebo. Participants reported enjoying taking part. CONCLUSION: A full-scale RCT is feasible. It will need 37 % UK population coverage to recruit the required 160 participants. Information/education about the importance of RCT participation is needed for this population. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ISRCTN67338640 .This study was funded by the Chief Scientist Office, Scottish Government Health Department (reference: CZH/4/626). JS is funded by the NHS Lothian R&D Directorate. The study was supported by Down Syndrome Scotland, and we thank them, and all members of the Trial Steering Committee and Data Management and Ethics Committee.This is the final version of the article. It first appeared from BioMed Central via https://doi.org/10.1186/s13063-016-1370-

Financial Deepening and Agricultural Labour Productivity in ECOWAS: A Threshold Analysis

This study examines the threshold effect of financial deepening on agricultural labour productivity using a panel of 15 Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS). We adopt a battery of econometric models including the Hansen threshold model and a polynomial model within a Feasible Generalised Least Square (FGLS) setting. The results reveal that there exists no threshold effect of financial deepening on agricultural labour productivity. Results further show that financial deepening is not a significant driver of agricultural labour productivity in ECOWAS but life expectancy at birth and agricultural gross fixed capital formation per worker are significant drivers. This implies that financial depth is not a potent strategy in boosting agricultural labour productivity. As a result, paying attention to the significant determinants is rather recommended. Keywords: Financial Deepening, Agricultural Labour Productivity, Hansen Threshold model, Polynomial Model, Feasible Generalised Least Square, ECOWA

Antimicrobial resistance among migrants in Europe: a systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND: Rates of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) are rising globally and there is concern that increased migration is contributing to the burden of antibiotic resistance in Europe. However, the effect of migration on the burden of AMR in Europe has not yet been comprehensively examined. Therefore, we did a systematic review and meta-analysis to identify and synthesise data for AMR carriage or infection in migrants to Europe to examine differences in patterns of AMR across migrant groups and in different settings. METHODS: For this systematic review and meta-analysis, we searched MEDLINE, Embase, PubMed, and Scopus with no language restrictions from Jan 1, 2000, to Jan 18, 2017, for primary data from observational studies reporting antibacterial resistance in common bacterial pathogens among migrants to 21 European Union-15 and European Economic Area countries. To be eligible for inclusion, studies had to report data on carriage or infection with laboratory-confirmed antibiotic-resistant organisms in migrant populations. We extracted data from eligible studies and assessed quality using piloted, standardised forms. We did not examine drug resistance in tuberculosis and excluded articles solely reporting on this parameter. We also excluded articles in which migrant status was determined by ethnicity, country of birth of participants' parents, or was not defined, and articles in which data were not disaggregated by migrant status. Outcomes were carriage of or infection with antibiotic-resistant organisms. We used random-effects models to calculate the pooled prevalence of each outcome. The study protocol is registered with PROSPERO, number CRD42016043681. FINDINGS: We identified 2274 articles, of which 23 observational studies reporting on antibiotic resistance in 2319 migrants were included. The pooled prevalence of any AMR carriage or AMR infection in migrants was 25·4% (95% CI 19·1-31·8; I2 =98%), including meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (7·8%, 4·8-10·7; I2 =92%) and antibiotic-resistant Gram-negative bacteria (27·2%, 17·6-36·8; I2 =94%). The pooled prevalence of any AMR carriage or infection was higher in refugees and asylum seekers (33·0%, 18·3-47·6; I2 =98%) than in other migrant groups (6·6%, 1·8-11·3; I2 =92%). The pooled prevalence of antibiotic-resistant organisms was slightly higher in high-migrant community settings (33·1%, 11·1-55·1; I2 =96%) than in migrants in hospitals (24·3%, 16·1-32·6; I2 =98%). We did not find evidence of high rates of transmission of AMR from migrant to host populations. INTERPRETATION: Migrants are exposed to conditions favouring the emergence of drug resistance during transit and in host countries in Europe. Increased antibiotic resistance among refugees and asylum seekers and in high-migrant community settings (such as refugee camps and detention facilities) highlights the need for improved living conditions, access to health care, and initiatives to facilitate detection of and appropriate high-quality treatment for antibiotic-resistant infections during transit and in host countries. Protocols for the prevention and control of infection and for antibiotic surveillance need to be integrated in all aspects of health care, which should be accessible for all migrant groups, and should target determinants of AMR before, during, and after migration. FUNDING: UK National Institute for Health Research Imperial Biomedical Research Centre, Imperial College Healthcare Charity, the Wellcome Trust, and UK National Institute for Health Research Health Protection Research Unit in Healthcare-associated Infections and Antimictobial Resistance at Imperial College London