Anti-herpes simplex virus activity of extracts from the culinary herbs Ocimum sanctum L., Ocimum basilicum L. and Ocimum americanum L.

This study demonstrates anti-herpes simplex virus activity of dichloromethane and methanol extracts of Ocimum sanctum L., Ocimum basilicum L. and Ocimum americanum L. Green monkey kidney cellswere protected from HSV-2 infection by the dichloromethane extract of O. americanum L. and the methanol extract of O. sanctum, with therapeutic indexes (TI) of 1.865 and 1.644, respectively, when the cells were treated before viral infection. Herpes simplex virus-2 (HSV-2) infection was inhibited during viral adsorption when the cells were treated with methanol extracts of O. americanum L., O. sanctum L. and O. basilicum L. with TI of 2.345, 2.473 and 1.563, respectively, whereas dichloromethane extracts ofO. americanum L. and O. basilicum L. resulted in TI of 2.623 and 1.835, respectively. The methanol extract of O. americanum L. and the dichloromethane extract of O. basilicum L. inhibited HSV-1F with TI of 1.63 and 2.215, respectively, after viral adsorption. The inhibitory effects of extracts on HSV-2G, after viral adsorption, were quite high, for the dichloromethane extract of O. sanctum L. and the methanol extract of O. sanctum L. with TI of 10.003 and 29.395, respectively. The inhibitory effect of the O. americanum L. extract on HSV-1F and HSV-2 yield, after viral replication, was highest 30 h after treatment. The reduction of viral titers by 8.0 and 10.8 folds was observed when cells were treated with dichloromethane and methanol extracts of O. americanum L. Moreover, time-dependent virucidal effects of the extract on viral particles were demonstrated, since direct inhibition of both HSV-1F and HSV-2G was shown by a reduction in the amount of plaques by 100%, after treatment with the dichloromethane and methanol extracts of O. americanum L. Therefore, dichloromethane and methanol extracts of O. sanctum L., O. basilicum L. and O. americanum L. showed anti-HSV activities at varioussteps of the viral multiplication cycle.Key words: Medicinal plant, herpes simplex virus, Ocimum sanctum L., Ocimum basilicum L., Ocimum americanum L

Urban coral reefs: Degradation and resilience of hard coral assemblages in coastal cities of East and Southeast Asia

© 2018 The Author(s) Given predicted increases in urbanization in tropical and subtropical regions, understanding the processes shaping urban coral reefs may be essential for anticipating future conservation challenges. We used a case study approach to identify unifying patterns of urban coral reefs and clarify the effects of urbanization on hard coral assemblages. Data were compiled from 11 cities throughout East and Southeast Asia, with particular focus on Singapore, Jakarta, Hong Kong, and Naha (Okinawa). Our review highlights several key characteristics of urban coral reefs, including “reef compression” (a decline in bathymetric range with increasing turbidity and decreasing water clarity over time and relative to shore), dominance by domed coral growth forms and low reef complexity, variable city-specific inshore-offshore gradients, early declines in coral cover with recent fluctuating periods of acute impacts and rapid recovery, and colonization of urban infrastructure by hard corals. We present hypotheses for urban reef community dynamics and discuss potential of ecological engineering for corals in urban areas