Helminth immunoregulation: The role of parasite secreted proteins in modulating host immunity

Helminths are masterful immunoregulators. A characteristic feature of helminth infection is a Th2-dominated immune response, but stimulation of immunoregulatory cell populations, such as regulatory T cells and alternatively activated macrophages, is equally common. Typically, Th1/17 immunity is blocked and productive effector responses are muted, allowing survival of the parasite in a “modified Th2” environment. Drug treatment to clear the worms reverses the immunoregulatory effects, indicating that a state of active suppression is maintained by the parasite. Hence, research has focussed on “excretory–secretory” products released by live parasites, which can interfere with every aspect of host immunity from initial recognition to end-stage effector mechanisms. In this review, we survey our knowledge of helminth secreted molecules, and summarise current understanding of the growing number of individual helminth mediators that have been shown to target key receptors or pathways in the mammalian immune system

Onchocerciasis (river blindness) – more than a century of research and control

This review summarises more than a century of research on onchocerciasis, also known as river blindness, and its control. River blindness is an infection caused by the tissue filaria Onchocerca volvulus affecting the skin, subcutaneous tissue and eyes and leading to blindness in a minority of infected persons. The parasite is transmitted by its intermediate hosts Simulium spp. which breed in rivers. Featured are history and milestones in onchocerciasis research and control, state-of-the-art data on the parasite, its endobacteria Wolbachia, on the vectors, previous and current prevalence of the infection, its diagnostics, the interaction between the parasite and its host, immune responses and the pathology of onchocerciasis. Detailed information is documented on the time course of control programmes in the afflicted countries in Africa and the Americas, a long road from previous programmes to current successes in control of the transmission of this infectious disease. By development, adjustment and optimization of the control measures, transmission by the vector has been interrupted in foci of countries in the Americas, in Uganda, in Sudan and elsewhere, followed by onchocerciasis eliminations. The current state and future perspectives for control, elimination and eradication within the next 20–30 years are described and discussed. This review contributes to a deeper comprehension of this disease by a tissue-dwelling filaria and it will be helpful in efforts to control and eliminate other filarial infections

Charakterisierung der immunmodulierenden Wirkung eines Cysteinproteasen-Inhibitors der humanpathogenen Filarie Onchocerca volvulus

Filarien persistieren bis zu 15 Jahren in ihren Wirten. Als eine Ursache dieser Persistenz diskutiert man die Fähigkeit der Filarien, die Immunantwort des Wirtes gezielt zu modulieren und eine zelluläre Hyporeaktivität zu induzieren. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde untersucht, ob ein sezernierter Cysteinproteasen-Inhibitor (Onchocystatin) der humanpathogenen Filarie Onchocerca volvulus immunmodulierende Eigenschaften besitzt und an der Herausbildung eines hyporeaktiven Immunstatus des Wirtes beteiligt ist. Für die Untersuchungen wurde Onchocystatin als full length Molekül (rOv17) und als verkürztes Molekül (trOv17) rekombinant hergestellt. Das verkürzte trOv17 besitzt aufgrund des Fehlens des N-terminalen Bereiches eine verminderte proteaseinhibitorische Aktivität. Die in vitro Studien mit den rekombinant hergestellten O. volvulus Cystatinen verdeutlichen, daß rOv17 und auch trOv17 potente Immunmodulatoren sind, die sowohl die antigenspezifische als auch die polyklonal-stimulierte Proliferation von humanen PBMC inhibieren. Die zelluläre Hyporeaktivität ist dabei auf die Modulation von Monozytenfunktionen zurückzuführen. rOv17 und trOv17 modulieren die Antigenpräsentation, die Zytokinproduktion und die Expression kostimulatorischer Signale von humanen Monozyten. So konnte gezeigt werden, daß rOv17 und trOv17 die Aktivität von humanem Cathepsin L und S inhibieren und die Expression von HLA-DR, CD40 und CD86 vermindern. Die Modulation der Zytokinproduktion durch rOv17 und trOv17 ist durch eine verstärkte TNF-alpha und IL-10 Produktion und durch eine verminderte IL-12 Produktion charakterisiert. Desweiteren konnte in Neutralisationsstudien mit anti-IL-10 Ak gezeigt werden, daß die verminderte Expression von HLA-DR, CD40 und CD86 Folge der durch rOv17 und trOv17 induzierten verstärkten IL-10 Produktion ist. Im Gegensatz dazu bleibt die verminderte IL-12 Produktion und die verminderte polyklonal-stimulierte Proliferation humaner PBMC auch nach der Neutralisation von IL-10 bestehen. Die Studien mit den rekombinant hergestellten O. volvulus Cystatinen zeigen, daß rOv17 und trOv17 ihr immunologisches Umfeld auf vielfältige Art und Weise modulieren. Dabei spielt vermutlich die Inhibition der Aktivität einer Wirtscysteinprotease, aber auch ein von der Funktion als Cysteinproteasen-Inhibitor unabhängiger Mechanismus eine Rolle. Der Cysteinproteasen-Inhibitor der Filarie O. volvulus besitzt somit die Eigenschaft, die Immunantwort des Wirtes zu modifizieren, und ist vermutlich eine wesentliche Komponente, die dem Parasiten eine lange Persistenz im Wirt ermöglicht.Immune responses of individuals infected with filarial nematodes are characterized by a marked cellular hyporesponsiveness. The establishment of this hyporesponsiveness is considered as an important mechanism to avoid host immune responses which could eliminate the parasites. The present study is investigating the immunomodulatory potential of a 17 kD secreted cysteine protease inhibitor (onchocystatin) of the human pathogenic filaria Onchocerca volvulus. In vitro studies using recombinant onchocystatin (rOv17) identified this inhibitor as a potent immunomodulator. rOv17 suppresses the antigen-driven and the polyclonally-stimulated proliferation of human PBMC. This cellular hyporeactivity is due to the modulation of monocytic function by rOv17, comprising the modulation of antigenpresentation, the expression of costimulatory molecules and the production of cytokines. Thus rOv17 strongly inhibits the activity of human cathepsin L and S and reduces the expression of MHC class II molecules as well as the expression of CD40 and CD86 on human monocytes. The modulation of cytokine production by rOv17 is characterized by an initial increase of TNF-alpha which is followed by an increase of IL-10 and a decrease of IL-12. By neutralization studies it was shown that the suppression of MHC class II molecules and of CD86 and CD40 is mediated by the rOv17 induced increase of IL-10. In contrast cellular hyporeactivity and the reduced IL-12 production remain unaffected by neutralization of IL-10. In comparison to rOv17 a truncated onchocystatin (trOv17) with lowered protease inhibitory activity was investigated. Surprisingly even trOv17 is immunomodulatory active suggesting that immunomodulation by onchocystatin is mediated by both an inhibitor-dependent and an inhibitor-independent mechanism. These data demonstrate that onchocystatin is a potent immunomodulator of host immune responses and in consequence is an essential component that enables the parasites a long persistence within their hosts

Homologues of human macrophage migration inhibitory factor from a parasitic nematode gene cloning protein activity and crystal structure

Cytokines are the molecular messengers of the vertebrate immune system, coordinating the local and systemic immune responses to infective organisms. We report here functional and structural data on cytokine-like proteins from a eukaryotic pathogen. Two homologues of the human cytokine macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF) have been isolated from the parasitic nematode Brugia malayi. Both molecules (Bm-MIF-1 and Bm-MIF-2) show parallel functions to human MIF. They are chemotactic for human monocytes and activate them to produce IL-8, TNF-alpha, and endogenous MIF. The human and nematode MIF homologues share a tautomerase enzyme activity, which is in each case abolished by the mutation of the N-terminal proline residue. The crystal structure of Bm-MIF-2 at 1.8-A resolution has been determined, revealing a trimeric assembly with an inner pore created by beta-stranded sheets from each subunit. Both biological activity and crystal structure reveal remarkable conservation between a human cytokine and its parasite counterpart despite the considerable phylogenetic divide among these organisms. The strength of the similarity implies that MIF-mediated pathways play an important role in nematode immune evasion strategies