Trademarks, Certification Marks and Technical Standards

The names of many technical standards such as Wi-Fi, Bluetooth and DVD have become household terms known throughout the developed world. This chapter describes different approaches that have been taken with respect to the naming and legal protection of technical standards, ranging from those that are wholly unregulated to those that are administered under strict certification and compliance regimes. It concludes by questioning the need for aggressive protection of marks that exist largely to inform consumers about technical product features rather than the source of standards themselves

How does pasture size alter plant–herbivore interactions among grazing cattle?

International audienceGrassland management impacts ecosystem functioning and is critical for livestock production and biodiversity conservation. Decreasing the stocking rate usually benefits biodiversity but also decreases production per unit area. Here, we assessed the combined effects of cattle herd and pasture size on sward structure, diet quality and daily grazing time while maintaining a constant stocking rate. The experiment was conducted over four successive years in two blocks of a species-rich upland grassland that was continuously grazed for 5 months between May and October. Each block consisted of one 3-ha pasture that was grazed by a group of three heifers, one 9-ha pasture grazed by nine heifers, and one 27-ha pasture grazed by 27 heifers. The grazed patches were discriminated using a mathematical model that for each point gave a probability of being grazed based on sward height and spatial dependence. Heifers created fewer patches and had less control over sward height in the smallest (3-ha) plots, while no difference was found between the 9- and 27-ha plots. The small heifer groups also had the shortest daily grazing time. These observations point out a risk that animal impacts on sward structure could be partly missed in grazing experiments conducted with very small groups. Estimated diet quality was unaffected by pasture size. Patch stability was frequent between two successive years but we observed a decrease in interannual patch stability as time intervals increase. Such observations are useful for calibrating spatial interaction models combining foraging behaviour and vegetation dynamics rules and enhance their predictive ability

‘Winter camp’ 1917 : integrated conflict archaeology on the Messines Ridge 1914-1918 (Belgium)

Integrated research using aerial photography, proximal soil sensing, historical research and excavations of an unusual First World War site in Flanders (Belgium) is presented. Aerial photography revealed a grid of 5x6 huts unusually close to the front line. Geophysical research indicates good preservation of these structures. A targeted excavation was carried out. The results give insight into the structure of a military camp built in autumn 1917, used until the German offensive of April 1918. Research on excavated objects and historical sources revealed the camp was as the winter quarters for British and Australian pioneers. The unusual location and the fact that the pioneers occupied the camp themselves means that the huts found were not standard and dug in to provide extra protection. This research shows that barracks camps can be well preserved in the soil archives and have the potential to uncover stories from everyday life behind the front