Anemia prevalence in women of reproductive age in low- and middle-income countries between 2000 and 2018

Anemia is a globally widespread condition in women and is associated with reduced economic productivity and increased mortality worldwide. Here we map annual 2000–2018 geospatial estimates of anemia prevalence in women of reproductive age (15–49 years) across 82 low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), stratify anemia by severity and aggregate results to policy-relevant administrative and national levels. Additionally, we provide subnational disparity analyses to provide a comprehensive overview of anemia prevalence inequalities within these countries and predict progress toward the World Health Organization’s Global Nutrition Target (WHO GNT) to reduce anemia by half by 2030. Our results demonstrate widespread moderate improvements in overall anemia prevalence but identify only three LMICs with a high probability of achieving the WHO GNT by 2030 at a national scale, and no LMIC is expected to achieve the target in all their subnational administrative units. Our maps show where large within-country disparities occur, as well as areas likely to fall short of the WHO GNT, offering precision public health tools so that adequate resource allocation and subsequent interventions can be targeted to the most vulnerable populations.Peer reviewe

Global age-sex-specific fertility, mortality, healthy life expectancy (HALE), and population estimates in 204 countries and territories, 1950–2019: a comprehensive demographic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019

Background: Accurate and up-to-date assessment of demographic metrics is crucial for understanding a wide range of social, economic, and public health issues that affect populations worldwide. The Global Burden of Diseases, Injuries, and Risk Factors Study (GBD) 2019 produced updated and comprehensive demographic assessments of the key indicators of fertility, mortality, migration, and population for 204 countries and territories and selected subnational locations from 1950 to 2019. Methods: 8078 country-years of vital registration and sample registration data, 938 surveys, 349 censuses, and 238 other sources were identified and used to estimate age-specific fertility. Spatiotemporal Gaussian process regression (ST-GPR) was used to generate age-specific fertility rates for 5-year age groups between ages 15 and 49 years. With extensions to age groups 10–14 and 50–54 years, the total fertility rate (TFR) was then aggregated using the estimated age-specific fertility between ages 10 and 54 years. 7417 sources were used for under-5 mortality estimation and 7355 for adult mortality. ST-GPR was used to synthesise data sources after correction for known biases. Adult mortality was measured as the probability of death between ages 15 and 60 years based on vital registration, sample registration, and sibling histories, and was also estimated using ST-GPR. HIV-free life tables were then estimated using estimates of under-5 and adult mortality rates using a relational model life table system created for GBD, which closely tracks observed age-specific mortality rates from complete vital registration when available. Independent estimates of HIV-specific mortality generated by an epidemiological analysis of HIV prevalence surveys and antenatal clinic serosurveillance and other sources were incorporated into the estimates in countries with large epidemics. Annual and single-year age estimates of net migration and population for each country and territory were generated using a Bayesian hierarchical cohort component model that analysed estimated age-specific fertility and mortality rates along with 1250 censuses and 747 population registry years. We classified location-years into seven categories on the basis of the natural rate of increase in population (calculated by subtracting the crude death rate from the crude birth rate) and the net migration rate. We computed healthy life expectancy (HALE) using years lived with disability (YLDs) per capita, life tables, and standard demographic methods. Uncertainty was propagated throughout the demographic estimation process, including fertility, mortality, and population, with 1000 draw-level estimates produced for each metric. Findings: The global TFR decreased from 2•72 (95% uncertainty interval [UI] 2•66–2•79) in 2000 to 2•31 (2•17–2•46) in 2019. Global annual livebirths increased from 134•5 million (131•5–137•8) in 2000 to a peak of 139•6 million (133•0–146•9) in 2016. Global livebirths then declined to 135•3 million (127•2–144•1) in 2019. Of the 204 countries and territories included in this study, in 2019, 102 had a TFR lower than 2•1, which is considered a good approximation of replacement-level fertility. All countries in sub-Saharan Africa had TFRs above replacement level in 2019 and accounted for 27•1% (95% UI 26•4–27•8) of global livebirths. Global life expectancy at birth increased from 67•2 years (95% UI 66•8–67•6) in 2000 to 73•5 years (72•8–74•3) in 2019. The total number of deaths increased from 50•7 million (49•5–51•9) in 2000 to 56•5 million (53•7–59•2) in 2019. Under-5 deaths declined from 9•6 million (9•1–10•3) in 2000 to 5•0 million (4•3–6•0) in 2019. Global population increased by 25•7%, from 6•2 billion (6•0–6•3) in 2000 to 7•7 billion (7•5–8•0) in 2019. In 2019, 34 countries had negative natural rates of increase; in 17 of these, the population declined because immigration was not sufficient to counteract the negative rate of decline. Globally, HALE increased from 58•6 years (56•1–60•8) in 2000 to 63•5 years (60•8–66•1) in 2019. HALE increased in 202 of 204 countries and territories between 2000 and 2019. Interpretation: Over the past 20 years, fertility rates have been dropping steadily and life expectancy has been increasing, with few exceptions. Much of this change follows historical patterns linking social and economic determinants, such as those captured by the GBD Socio-demographic Index, with demographic outcomes. More recently, several countries have experienced a combination of low fertility and stagnating improvement in mortality rates, pushing more populations into the late stages of the demographic transition. Tracking demographic change and the emergence of new patterns will be essential for global health monitoring. Funding: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation. © 2020 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an Open Access article under the CC BY 4.0 licens

The global burden of cancer attributable to risk factors, 2010–19: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019

BACKGROUND: Understanding the magnitude of cancer burden attributable to potentially modifiable risk factors is crucial for development of effective prevention and mitigation strategies. We analysed results from the Global Burden of Diseases, Injuries, and Risk Factors Study (GBD) 2019 to inform cancer control planning efforts globally. METHODS: The GBD 2019 comparative risk assessment framework was used to estimate cancer burden attributable to behavioural, environmental and occupational, and metabolic risk factors. A total of 82 risk–outcome pairs were included on the basis of the World Cancer Research Fund criteria. Estimated cancer deaths and disability-adjusted life-years (DALYs) in 2019 and change in these measures between 2010 and 2019 are presented. FINDINGS: Globally, in 2019, the risk factors included in this analysis accounted for 4·45 million (95% uncertainty interval 4·01–4·94) deaths and 105 million (95·0–116) DALYs for both sexes combined, representing 44·4% (41·3–48·4) of all cancer deaths and 42·0% (39·1–45·6) of all DALYs. There were 2·88 million (2·60–3·18) risk-attributable cancer deaths in males (50·6% [47·8–54·1] of all male cancer deaths) and 1·58 million (1·36–1·84) risk-attributable cancer deaths in females (36·3% [32·5–41·3] of all female cancer deaths). The leading risk factors at the most detailed level globally for risk-attributable cancer deaths and DALYs in 2019 for both sexes combined were smoking, followed by alcohol use and high BMI. Risk-attributable cancer burden varied by world region and Socio-demographic Index (SDI), with smoking, unsafe sex, and alcohol use being the three leading risk factors for risk-attributable cancer DALYs in low SDI locations in 2019, whereas DALYs in high SDI locations mirrored the top three global risk factor rankings. From 2010 to 2019, global risk-attributable cancer deaths increased by 20·4% (12·6–28·4) and DALYs by 16·8% (8·8–25·0), with the greatest percentage increase in metabolic risks (34·7% [27·9–42·8] and 33·3% [25·8–42·0]). INTERPRETATION: The leading risk factors contributing to global cancer burden in 2019 were behavioural, whereas metabolic risk factors saw the largest increases between 2010 and 2019. Reducing exposure to these modifiable risk factors would decrease cancer mortality and DALY rates worldwide, and policies should be tailored appropriately to local cancer risk factor burden

Global burden of 87 risk factors in 204 countries and territories, 1990�2019: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019

Background: Rigorous analysis of levels and trends in exposure to leading risk factors and quantification of their effect on human health are important to identify where public health is making progress and in which cases current efforts are inadequate. The Global Burden of Diseases, Injuries, and Risk Factors Study (GBD) 2019 provides a standardised and comprehensive assessment of the magnitude of risk factor exposure, relative risk, and attributable burden of disease. Methods: GBD 2019 estimated attributable mortality, years of life lost (YLLs), years of life lived with disability (YLDs), and disability-adjusted life-years (DALYs) for 87 risk factors and combinations of risk factors, at the global level, regionally, and for 204 countries and territories. GBD uses a hierarchical list of risk factors so that specific risk factors (eg, sodium intake), and related aggregates (eg, diet quality), are both evaluated. This method has six analytical steps. (1) We included 560 risk�outcome pairs that met criteria for convincing or probable evidence on the basis of research studies. 12 risk�outcome pairs included in GBD 2017 no longer met inclusion criteria and 47 risk�outcome pairs for risks already included in GBD 2017 were added based on new evidence. (2) Relative risks were estimated as a function of exposure based on published systematic reviews, 81 systematic reviews done for GBD 2019, and meta-regression. (3) Levels of exposure in each age-sex-location-year included in the study were estimated based on all available data sources using spatiotemporal Gaussian process regression, DisMod-MR 2.1, a Bayesian meta-regression method, or alternative methods. (4) We determined, from published trials or cohort studies, the level of exposure associated with minimum risk, called the theoretical minimum risk exposure level. (5) Attributable deaths, YLLs, YLDs, and DALYs were computed by multiplying population attributable fractions (PAFs) by the relevant outcome quantity for each age-sex-location-year. (6) PAFs and attributable burden for combinations of risk factors were estimated taking into account mediation of different risk factors through other risk factors. Across all six analytical steps, 30 652 distinct data sources were used in the analysis. Uncertainty in each step of the analysis was propagated into the final estimates of attributable burden. Exposure levels for dichotomous, polytomous, and continuous risk factors were summarised with use of the summary exposure value to facilitate comparisons over time, across location, and across risks. Because the entire time series from 1990 to 2019 has been re-estimated with use of consistent data and methods, these results supersede previously published GBD estimates of attributable burden. Findings: The largest declines in risk exposure from 2010 to 2019 were among a set of risks that are strongly linked to social and economic development, including household air pollution; unsafe water, sanitation, and handwashing; and child growth failure. Global declines also occurred for tobacco smoking and lead exposure. The largest increases in risk exposure were for ambient particulate matter pollution, drug use, high fasting plasma glucose, and high body-mass index. In 2019, the leading Level 2 risk factor globally for attributable deaths was high systolic blood pressure, which accounted for 10·8 million (95 uncertainty interval UI 9·51�12·1) deaths (19·2% 16·9�21·3 of all deaths in 2019), followed by tobacco (smoked, second-hand, and chewing), which accounted for 8·71 million (8·12�9·31) deaths (15·4% 14·6�16·2 of all deaths in 2019). The leading Level 2 risk factor for attributable DALYs globally in 2019 was child and maternal malnutrition, which largely affects health in the youngest age groups and accounted for 295 million (253�350) DALYs (11·6% 10·3�13·1 of all global DALYs that year). The risk factor burden varied considerably in 2019 between age groups and locations. Among children aged 0�9 years, the three leading detailed risk factors for attributable DALYs were all related to malnutrition. Iron deficiency was the leading risk factor for those aged 10�24 years, alcohol use for those aged 25�49 years, and high systolic blood pressure for those aged 50�74 years and 75 years and older. Interpretation: Overall, the record for reducing exposure to harmful risks over the past three decades is poor. Success with reducing smoking and lead exposure through regulatory policy might point the way for a stronger role for public policy on other risks in addition to continued efforts to provide information on risk factor harm to the general public. Funding: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation. © 2020 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an Open Access article under the CC BY 4.0 licens

The Midgut Of Cephalotes Ants (formicidae: Myrmicinae): Ultrastructure Of The Epithelium And Symbiotic Bacteria

The ultrastructural analysis of the midgut of Cephalotes atratus, C. clypeatus, and C. pusillus reveled that the midgut epithelium lays on a basal lamina and is composed basically of three cell types: digestive cells, regenerative cells, and goblet cells. In these ants, the rough endoplasmic reticulum, in addition to producing digestive enzymes, is involved in the formation of concretions and ion storage in specialized vacuoles present in the midgut. These concretions are spherocrystals and may contribute to stabilize the pH and to maintain symbiotic bacteria found between microvilli. The ultrastructure analysis of these bacteria revealed the presence of a double envelope typical of gram-negative bacteria. For the three species examined, the ultrastructure similarities are conspicuous, suggesting that this may be the pattern for the genus Cephalotes. Details of the relationship between bacteria and microvilli were examined. © 2010 Elsevier Ltd.415448454Arab, A., Caetano, F.H., Functional ultrastructure of the midgut of the fire ant Solenopsis saevissima Forel 1904 (Formicidae: Myrmicinae) Cytobios (2001) Cambridge, 105, pp. 45-53Baumann, P., Baumann, L., Lai, C.Y., Rouhbahsh, D., Moran, N.A., Clark, M.A., Genetics, physiology, and evolutionary relationship of the genus Buchnera: intracellular symbionts of the Aphides (1995) Annu. Rev. Microbiol., 49, pp. 55-94Blochmann, F., Uber das Vorkommen bakterienahnlicher Gebilde in den Geweben und Eiern verschiedener Insekten (1882) Zbl. Bakt. II., pp. 234-240Bution, M.L., Caetano, F.H., Ileum of the Cephalotes ants: a specialized structure to harbor symbionts microorganisms (2008) Micron, 39, pp. 897-909Bution, M.L., Caetano, F.H., Fabio, B., Britto, Giovana, A., Tomaino-Gomes, Zara, F.J., Histology and histochemistry of the ventriculus Dolichoderus (=Monacis) bispinosus (Olivier, 1792) (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) (2006) Micron, 37, pp. 249-254Caetano, F.H., Anatomia, histologia e histoquímica do sistema digestivo e excretor de operárias de formigas (Hymenoptera, Formicidae) (1988) Naturalia, São Paulo, 13, pp. 129-174Caetano, F.H., Endosymbiosis of ants with intestinal and salivary gland bactéria (1989) Insect Endocytobiosis: Morphology, Physiology, Genetic, Evolution, pp. 57-75. , C.R.C. Press, Inc., USACaetano, F.H., Cruz-Landim, C., Ultra-estrutura das células colunares do ventrículo de Camponotus arboreus (Hymenoptera, Formicidae) (1983) Naturalia, São Paulo, 8, pp. 91-100Caetano, F.H., Cruz-Landim, Presence of microorganisms in the alimentary canal of ants of the Cephalotini tribe (Myrmicinae): location and relationship with intestinal structures (1985) Naturalia, São Paulo, 10, pp. 37-47Caetano, F.H., Jaffé, K., Crewe, R.W., The digestive tract of the Cataulacus ants: presence of the microorganisms in the ileum (1994) 12TH World Congress on Social Insects, pp. 391-392Caetano, F.H., Torres, A.H., Camargo-Mathias, M.I., Tomotake, M.E.M., (1994) Apocrine secretion in the ant, Pachycondyla striata, ventriculus (Formicidae: Ponerinae), pp. 235-242. , Cytobios, CambridgeCaetano, F.H., Bution, M.L., Zara, F.J., First report of endocytobionts in the digestive tract of ponerine ants (2009) Micron, 40, pp. 194-197Caldwell, D.R., (1995) Microbial Physiology and Metabolism, p. 353. , Wm. C. Brown Communications, IncChapman, R.F., (1975) The Insects: structure and function, p. 819. , American Elsevier, New YorkChen, X., Li, S., Aksoy, S., Concordant evolution of a symbiont with its host insect species: molecular physiology of genus Glossina and its bacteriome-associated endosymbiont, Wigglesworthia glossinidia (1999) J. Mol. Evol., 48, pp. 49-58Jeantet, A.Y., Recherches histophisiologiques sur le developpement postembryonnaire, et le cycle annuel de Formica (Hyménoptère) (1971) Z. Zellforsch., 116, pp. 24-405Jones, C.G., Microorganisms as mediators of plant resource exploitation by insect herbivores (1983) A New Ecology: Novel Approach to Interactive Systems, pp. 53-99. , P.W. Price, C.N. Slobodchikoff, W.S. Gand (Eds.)King, R.C., Akai, H., (1984) Insect Ultrastructure, 2, p. 624. , Plenum Press, New YorkLehane, M.J., Billingsley, P.F., (1996) Biology of the Insect Midgut, p. 486. , Chapman and HallMartoja, R., Ballan-Dufarnçais, C., The ultra-structure of the digestive and excretory organs (1984) Insect Ultrastructure, 2, pp. 199-268. , Plenum Press, New YorkRoche, R.K., Wheeler, D.E., Morphological specializations of the digestive tract of Zacryptocerus rohweri (Hymenoptera, Formicidae) (1997) Journal of Morphology, Tucson, 234, pp. 253-262Schroder, D., Deppsch, H., Obermayer, M., Krohne, G., Stackebrandt, E., Holldobler, B., Goebel, W., Gross, R., Intracellular endosymbiotic bacteria of Camponotus species (carpenter ants): systematics, evolution and ultrastructural characterization (1996) Mol. Microbiol., 21 (3), pp. 479-489Snodgrass, R.E., (1935) Principles of Insect Morphology, p. 667. , Mcgraw-hill Book CompanyTerra, W.R., The origin and functions of the insect peritrophic membrane and peritrophic gel (2001) Arch. Insect Biochem. Physiol., 47, pp. 47-61Terra, W.R., Ferreira, C., Insect digestive enzymes: properties, compartmentalization and function (1994) Comp. Biochem. Physiol., pp. 1-62Terra, W.R., Ferreira, C., Baker, J.E., (1996) Biology of the Insect Midgut, pp. 206-231. , Lehane and Billingsley/Chapman and HallWigglesworth, V.B., (1974) The Principles of Insect Physiology, p. 827. , Chapman and Hall, Londo

Symbiotic Bacteria And The Structural Specializations In The Ileum Of Cephalotes Ants

Light, scanning, and transmission electron microscopy were used to examine the ultramorphology and ultrastructure of the ileum of Cephalotes atratus, Cephalotes clypeatus, and Cephalotes pusillus. Sections along the ileum revealed differences among the three main regions: proximal (or pylorus), medial, and distal. The structural specializations present in the ileum of these three ants have implications especially to the symbiotic bacteria harbored in this region of the digestive tract. The structural similarities are conspicuous for the three species examined, suggesting that this is the pattern adopted by the genus Cephalotes. © 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.414373381Billen, J., Buscinger, A., Morphology and ultrastructure of a specialized bacterial pouch in the digestive tract of Tetraponera ants (Formicidae, Pseudomyrmecinae) (2000) Arthropod Struct. Dev., 29, pp. 259-266Bution, M.L., Caetano, F.H., Fabio, B.B., Giovana, A.T.G., Zara, F.J., Histology and histochemistry of the ventriculus Dolichoderus (=Monacis) bispinosus (Olivier, 1792) (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) (2006) Micron, 37, pp. 249-254Bution, M.L., Caetano, F.H., Ileum of the Cephalotes ants: a specialized structure to harbor symbionts microorganisms (2008) Micron, 39, pp. 897-909Caetano, F.H., Lage Filho, A.L., Anatomia e histologia do trato digestivo de formigas do gênero Odontomachus (Hymenoptera, Ponerinae) (1982) Naturalia São Paulo, 7, pp. 125-134Caetano, F.H., Morfologia comparada do trato digestivo de formigas da subfamília Myrmicinae (Hymenoptera, Formicidae) (1984) Pap. Avulsos Zool. (São Paulo), 35, pp. 257-305Caetano, F.H., Cruz-Landim, C., Presence of microorganisms in the alimentary canal of ants of the tribe Cephalotini (Myrmicinae): location and relationship with intestinal structures (1985) Naturalia (São Paulo), 10, pp. 37-47Caetano, F.H., Camargo-Mathias, M.I., Overal, W.L., Anatomia e histologia do trato digestivo de Dinoponera gigantea e Panaponera clavata (Formicidae: Ponerinae) (1986) Naturalia, 11-12, pp. 125-134Caetano, F.H., Anatomia, histologia e histoquímica do sistema digestivo e excretor de operárias de formigas (Hymenoptera, Formicidae) (1988) Naturalia (São Paulo), 13, pp. 129-174Caetano, F.H., (1989) Endosymbiosis of Ants with Intestinal and Salivary Gland Bactéria. Insect Endocytobiosis: Morphology, Physiology, Genetic, Evolution, , CRC Press Inc., USA pp. 57-75Caetano, F.H., Tomotake, M.E., Pimentel, M.A.L., Camargo-Mathias, M.I., Morfologia interna de operárias de Dolichoderus attelaboides (FABRICIUS, 1775) (FORMICIDAE: DOLICHODERINAE). Trato digestivo e sistema excretor anexo (1990) Naturália, São Paulo, 15, pp. 57-65Caetano, F.H., Jaffé, K., Crewe, R.W., The digestive tract of the Cataulacus ants: presence of the microorganisms in the ileum (1994) Proceedings of the 12th World Congress on Social Insects (IUSSI), pp. 391-392. , ParisChapman, R.F., (1975) The Insects: Structure and Function, , American Elsevier, New York p. 819Dillon, R.J., Dillon, V.M., The gut bacteria of insects: nonpathogenic Interactions (2004) Annu. Rev. Entomol., 49, pp. 71-92Holldobler, B., Wilson, E.O., (1990) The Ants, , Springer, London pp. 436-467Lemos, F.J.A., Terra, W.R., Digestion of bacteria and the role of midgut lysozyme in some insect larvae (1991) Comp. Biochem. Physiol., 100 B, pp. 265-268Roche, R.K., Wheeler, D.E., Morphological Specializations of the Digestive Tract of Zacryptocerus rohweri (Hymenoptera, Formicidae) (1997) J. Morphol. (Tucson), 234, pp. 253-262Wigglesworth, V.B., (1974) The Principles of Insect Physiology. 7th ed., , Chapman and Hall, London p. 827van Borm, S., Buschinger, A., Boomsma, J.J., Billen, J., Tetraponera ants heve gut symbionts related to nitrogen-fixing root-nodule bacteria (2002) Proc. R. Soc. Lond., 296, pp. 2023-202

Ultramorphological Characteristics Of Chrysomya Megacephala (diptera, Calliphoridae) Eggs And Its Eclosion

Chrysomya blowflies are originally from Africa and Australasia and were introduced in the American Continent, probably as a sheep parasite, in the 1970s. These flies are extremely important for medical-sanitary purposes and are useful to forensic entomology being used as an indicative of decomposition time in human corpses. The morphology of the larval and pupal stages of some species has been already studied by different authors demonstrating that it is possible to identify them in premature stages. In this study, Chrysomya megacephala egg ultramorphology was analyzed to describe its structure, generating data for further comparison between different species and genera. The blowflies were collected in Rio Claro city, SP, Brazil. Flies were attracted by fish carcasses and maintained in net cages; small portions of minced meat were placed in plastic pots for egg laying. Eggs were collected, fixed in alcoholic Bouin, prepared according to SEM routine and observed under Philips scanning electron microscope. C. megacephala eggs are oval with one flat face and another convex, measuring approximately 0.52 (±0.03) mm of length and 0.12 (±0.02) mm of width. The micropyle is circular in shape, with two perforations enclosed by countless small projections and is located in one of the extremities in the interface between the flat and convex faces. On the convex surface hexagonal imprints were observed, this surface is impermeable to water and gases. The flat surface has numerous round projections with different sizes, creating a permeable surface with a thinner chorion from which the larvae hatches. The larvae presents itself all wrinkled and with numerous cuticular projections with a thorn shape facing the posterior region. The cuticle projections with a thorn shape from C. megacephala larvae are probably a vestige of the thorns found in larvae of parasite Diptera. © 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.39811341137Amorim, J.A., Ribeiro, O.B., Distinction among the puparia of three blowfly species (Diptera: Calliphoridae) frequently found on unburied corpses (2001) Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, 96, pp. 781-784Becker, P., Observations on the life cycle and immature stages of Culicoides circumscriptus Kieff. (Diptera, Ceratopogonidae) (1961) Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh 67, pp. 363-387Campbell, M.M., Kettle, D.S., Oogenesis in Culicoides brevitarsis Kieffer (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) and the development of a plastron-like layer on the egg (1975) Australian Journal of Zoology, 23, pp. 203-218Cruz-Landin, C., Yabuki, A.T., Fine structure and morphogenesis of the micropyle apparatus in bees eggs (1995) Biocell, 19, pp. 125-132Degrugillier, M.E., Grosz, S.G., Effects of female accessory gland ablation on fertility of screw worms, stable flies and face flies (1981) Annals of the Entomological Society of America, 74, pp. 217-221Feachem, R.G., Bradley, D.J., Garelick, H., Mara, D., Sanitation and disease-health aspects of excreta and wastewaterr management (1983) World Bank Studies in Water Supply and Sanitation, 3. , John Wiley & SonsFilippis, T., Leite, C.R., Morphology of the second- and third-instar larvae of Dermatobia hominis by scanning electron microscopy (1998) Medical and Veterinary Entomology, 12, pp. 160-168Forattini, O.P., Sallum, M.A.M., Flores, D.C., Description of the egg of Anopheles (Anopheles) intermedius (Peryassu, 1908) (Diptera: Culicidae) by scanning electron microscopy (1997) Revista do Institudo de Medicina Tropical de São Paulo, 39, pp. 5-10Greenberg, B., Behaviour of postfeeding larvae of some Calliforidae and amuscid (Diptera) (1990) Annals of the Entomological Society of America, 83, pp. 1210-1214Guimarães, J.H., Prado, A.P., Buralli, G.M., Dispersal and distribution of three newly introduced species of Chrysomya Robineau-Desvoidy in Brazil (Diptera: Calliphoridae) (1979) Revista Brasileira de Entomologia, 23, pp. 245-255Hinton, H.E., Respiratory system of insect eggshell (1969) Annual Review of Entomology, 14, pp. 343-368Margaritis, L.H., Structure and physiology of the eggshell (1985) Comparative Insect Physiology, Biochemistry and Pharmacology, pp. 153-230. , Kerkut G.A., and Gilbert L.I. (Eds), Pergamon Press, OxfordQueiroz, M.M.C., Mello, R.P., Lima, M.M., Morphological aspects of the larval instars of Chrysomya albiceps (Diptera: Calliphoridae) reared in the laboratory (1997) Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, 92, pp. 187-196Tirone, G., Avancini, R.M.P., Development of female accessory glands of Chrysomya putoria (Wiedemann) (Diptera: Calliphoridae) during oogenesis (1997) International Journal of Insect Morphology and Embryology, 26, pp. 1-7Valle, D., Monnerat, A.T., Soares, M.J., Mosquito embryos and eggs: polarity and terminology of chorionic layers (1999) Journal of Insect Physiology, 45, pp. 701-708Von Zuben, C.J., Bassanezi, R.C., Reis, S.F., Godoy, W.A.C., Zuben, F.J.V., Theoretical approaches to forensic entomology. I. Mathematical model of postfeeding larval dispersal (1996) Journal of Applied Entomology, 120, pp. 379-382Wigglesworth, V.B., (1974) Insect Physiology. 7th ed., , Science Paperboocks, London p. 166Wolf, K.W., Guanchun, L., Fine structure of the egg-shell in two flies, Megaselia scalaris and Medaselia spiracularis (Diptera: Phoridae) (1996) International Journal of Insect Morphology and Embryology, 25, pp. 289-294Zumpt, F., (1965) Myiasis in Man and Animal in the Old World, , Butterworths, London p. 26