Versorgung von HIV-Patienten in Deutschland: Herausforderungen der Zukunft

Als Folge der jüngsten gesundheitspolitischen Reformen in Deutschland scheint ein Wandel in der HIV-Versorgungsstruktur unumgänglich. Vor diesem Hintergrund widmeten sich im November 2008 unterschiedliche Interessenvertreter in einem Workshop der Identifikation und Diskussion zukünftiger gesundheitspolitischer und -ökonomischer Herausforderungen. Ein Schwerpunkt lag auf den Aufgaben, denen sich die beteiligten Personengruppen zu stellen haben (Leistungserbringer, Kostenträger, pharmazeutische Industrie, Gesundheitspolitik und Patienten). Darauf aufbauend konnten fünf zukünftige methodische und politische Themenschwerpunkte (Outcome/Leitlinien, gesundheitsökonomische Evaluation, Nutzen/Effizienzgrenze, Versorgungsforschung sowie Vertragslandschaft) herausgearbeitet werden.Taking into account recent health care reforms in Germany a change of the structure in the provision of HIV health care services seems inevitable. Having this in mind representatives of multiple disciplines met in November 2008 to discuss future health-political and health-economic challenges for HIV health care. As a result challenges for five stakeholder groups could be identified: health care providers, third party payers, the pharmaceutical industry, health politicians, and patients. Furthermore five methodological and health political topics, namely clinical outcome/guidelines, health economic evaluation, benefits/efficiency frontier, health service research, and contracting policies, emerged has being the most discussed at the moment

Herausforderungen der gesundheitsökonomischen Evaluation der Prävention

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Therapy of atopic eczema

Objectives: Major objective is the evaluation of the medical effectiveness of different therapeutical approaches and the cost effectiveness with relevance for Germany. Methods: This health technology assessment (HTA) evaluates systemically randomized controlled studies (RCT) on the therapy of atopic dermatitis which were published between 1999 and 2004. Further it includes some important clinical studies which have been published after 2004 and other updates the English HTA report by Hoare et al. [1]. Results: Topical corticosteroids and topical calcineurin-inhibitors are the principal substances which are currently used for anti-inflammatory therapy in atopic dermatitis. These substances have shown a significant therapeutic efficacy in controlled studies. In newer controlled studies no difference was observable when corticosteroids were applied once or more than once daily onto the skin. Moreover, there is now one controlled study available which points to the fact that an interval therapy with a stronger topical corticosteroid over a limited time (some weeks) may lower the risk of recurrent flares of atopic dermatitis. Both topical calcineurin-inhibitors pimecrolimus and tacrolimus have shown a significant therapeutical efficacy in a number of placebo-controlled prospective studies. The wealth of data is high for these substances. Both substances have been shown to be efficient in infants, children and adult patients with atopic dermatitis. The importance of a so-called basic therapy with emollients which have to be adapted to the current status of skin is generally accepted in clinical practice. Controlled studies show the efficacy of ”basic therapy” - although the level of evidence is quite low for this approach. The skin of patients with atopic dermatitis is colonized in the majority with Staphylococcus aureus, a gram-positive bacterium. Therefore, a therapeutical approach for the treatment of atopic dermatitis is the anti-bacterial or anti-septic treatment of the skin. Due to the lack of randomized controlled studies there is still not certain proof that antimicrobial or anti-septic treatment of non-infected eczematous skin is efficient for the treatment of atopic dermatitis. A reduction of Staphylococcus aureus is observable during an anti-inflammatory treatment of the skin with topical corticosteroids and/or the topical calcineurin-inhibitor tacrolimus. Antihistaminic drugs which are orally applied in atopic dermatitis may support the therapy of the itching skin disease. One controlled study showed a rapid reduction of itch during the use of a non-sedating antihistaminic drug. There are, however, no controlled studies which show the efficacy of antihistaminic drugs on the skin condition in atopic dermatitis. Dietetic restrictions should be applied only after a specific allergological diagnostic clarification. The “gold standard” is still a (blinded) oral provocation test which has to show an influence of a given food on the skin condition. There is sufficient evidence that there is no general dietetic approach which shows efficacy in atopic dermatitis. The treatment of patients with lactobacillae is still controversially discussed. Available studies which showed an efficacy show methodological weaknesses so that this approach can not be generally recommended for clinical practice at the time now. Approaches reducing house dust mite in the surroundings of patients with atopic dermatitis can have an effect on the skin condition so that at least in mite sensitized patients this approach appears to be reasonable. The specific immunotherapy with house dust mite showed clinical efficacy in a controlled study and in some open studies. The education of patients with atopic dermatitis or their parents is a further efficient approach in the management of this chronic skin disease. Interdisciplinary approaches in patients’ education containing also psychological elements appear to be an attractive new approach for the treatment of atopic dermatitis. Phototherapy is a further possibility of intervention in atopic dermatitis in adolescent or adult patients. The available evidence points to the fact that UVB radiation (both small and broad spectrum), UVA-1 radiation and balneo-phototherapy are efficient therapeutical options for atopic dermatitis. The systemic treatment with the immunosuppressive substance cyclosporine A is efficient in the treatment of severe atopic dermatitis. Cyclosoprine A is approved for the treatment of adult patients with this skin disease. The immunosuppressive substance azathioprine showed a high clinical efficacy in two controlled studies for severe atopic dermatitis in adults. There are still controversial results for the application of antagonists to leucotriens in the treatment of atopic dermatitis: in some open studies a therapeutical efficacy was described which was, however, not reproducible in a newer controlled study. The phosphodiesterase-4-inhibitor cipamphyllin was efficient in the treatment of atopic dermatitis in a controlled study but weaker than a topical class II (i. e. moderate strength) corticosteroide. The HTA assessment further describes so-called complementary therapeutical approaches which have either not properly been studied in controlled clinical trials or which have been shown to be of no value for the treatment of atopic dermatitis. Altogether six full health-economic evaluations were found which did not cover the whole therapy spectrum of atopic dermatitis. The choice of the most cost effective treatment option of topic corticosteroids depends less on application frequency, but rather on the drug price and more used or unused quantity of the standard packages, so even smallest improvements justify a more frequent application. The results from health economic evaluations of calcineurin-inhibitors are not reliable. The therapy of severe atopic dermatitis in adults with ciclosporin shows comparable cost effectiveness in comparison to UVA/UVB therapy. Discussion: The spectrum of therapeutical procedures has increased for atopic dermatitis but is still not sufficient. The spectrum of established substances is much smaller compared to psoriasis, another chronic and common inflammatory skin disease. There is need for the development new substances which can be applied topically and which are aimed to treat atopic dermatitis in early childhood. Another need for new developments can be found for the treatment of severe atopic dermatitis in adults. Conclusions: The spectrum of therapeutical procedures has increased for atopic dermatitis but is still not sufficient. The spectrum of established substances is much smaller compared to psoriasis, another chronic and common inflammatory skin disease. There is need for the development new substances which can be applied topically and which are aimed to treat atopic dermatitis in early childhood. Another need for new developments can be found for the treatment of severe atopic dermatitis in adults. Due to lack of health economic evaluations therapy decisions in the treatment of atopic dermatitis must take place on the basis of clinical decision criteria. The prescription of topic corticosteroids should prefer low priced drugs. Reliable statements about the cost effectiveness of the new calcineurin-inhibitors tacrolimus and pimecrolimus

Therapy of moderate and severe psoriasis

Objective and methods: This health technology assessment (HTA) report synthesises systematically randomized controlled studies (RCT) on the therapy of moderate and severe psoriasis vulgaris which were published between 1999 and 2004; it includes some important clinical studies which have been published after 2004 and thus updates the English HTA report by Griffiths et al. [1]. The major objective is the evaluation of the medical effectiveness of different therapeutical approaches and the cost effectiveness with relevance for Germany. Results: The major conclusions from the results of medical RCT on moderate and severe psoriasis vulgaris are: Oral fumarates are effective in the treatment of moderate to severe psoriasis vulgaris. However, fumarates quiet frequently cause moderate side effects. Cyclosporine and methotrexate are both effective in the treatment of severe psoriasis vulgaris. Both substances have a different spectrum of side effects which may limit the individual applicability. Acetritin is only moderately effective in the treatment of severe psoriasis of the plaque type. Calcipotriol or UV-radiation used at the same time can increase the clinical effectiveness of acetritin. Systemic PUVA, balneo-PUVA and UVB therapy are all effective for the treatment of severe psoriasis. The combination of UV therapy with vitamin D3 analogues or with topical steroids is more effective than the treatment with UV radiation alone. Saltwater baths increase the effectiveness of UVB therapy. No RCT on the therapeutical effects of topical tar or of dithranol in combination with UV therapy have been published so far. A continuous therapy with PUVA should not be applied due to its proven photocarcinogenicity. Three substances from the group of biologicals (Efalizumab, Etanercept, and Infliximab) are now available in Europe and a further substance (Alefacept) is available in the USA for the treatment of moderate to severe psoriasis. All biologicals have been effective in placebo controlled studies. The substances differ in the times until a clinical effect is observable, in the spectrum of side effects and in their efficiency on psoriasis arthritis. From health-economic studies considering both costs and clinical efficiency oral fumarates appear to be superior to acitretin or cyclosporine (although cyclosporine appears to be more effective in severe psoriasis). From the health economic view methotrexate is equivalent with UVB or PUVA and superior to cyclosporine. The therapy options UVB, UVB plus calcipotriol and PUVA are equivalent and superior to balneo-phototherapy. Biologicals are cost intensive and should be used when other approaches are not sufficient or are not applicable due to their side effects. The HTA report summarizes some health-economic studies on dithranol, on calcipotriol and on the combination with tar and UV light. No RCT have been published for the treatment of severe psoriasis with these agents alone but it appears to be certain that these substances are effective in severe psoriasis as well.DiscussionThe spectrum of therapeutical options has fortunately increased during the last years. It must be emphasized that a number of therapeutical procedures exist which are not discussed in detail in this HTA. This is due to the search strategy of literature: Only RCT performed with patients with moderate and/or severe psoriasis vulgaris were included into this evaluation. This led to the exclusion of a number of substances which are traditionally used alone or in combination for the treatment of moderate or severe psoriasis vulgaris (e.g. dithranol, salicyc acid, tar, corticosteroids and topical retinoids). Moreover, other approaches which include neither drugs nor UV light are not discussed in this HTA although the authors believe in the importance of psychotherapeutical interventions, educational approaches and combined medical and non-medical approaches in rehabilitational medicine in the management of psoriasis vulgaris. The transferability of the health economic evaluations is strongly limited by the fact that all included health economic evaluations except one were not aligned to a German setting. A future research question will be the evaluation of the duration of remission and relapse ratios in the context of different therapy options of moderate and severe psoriasis. Moreover, the consideration of combined outcomes such as the improvement of psoriatic symptoms and the decrease of symptoms in accompanying psoriasis arthritis represents a future requirement of health assessment. Conclusions: From the clinical point of view it is positive that the spectrum of therapeutic procedures for a chronic severe skin disease has increased continuously during the last years. In cases of individual contraindications or individual inefficacies it is now possible to try alternative approaches. Moreover the risk of long-term side effects can be reduced by changing the therapeutical procedure after some time (so-called rotation therapy). The therapeutical algorithm for severe psoriasis vulgaris now includes photo(chemo-)therapy in combination with topical substances, oral fumaric acid esters, retinoids (in combination with phototherapy or topical substances), methotrexate, cylosporine and the new biologics. Future studies should address therapeutical approaches which can not easily be studied by RCT, e.g. physical, balneological, climate approaches, educational programs and complex rehabilitation therapy which all may have positive effects on individuals with severe psoriasis. As in medical therapy management of moderate and severe psoriasis the economic evaluation also points out the way of a strategic therapy concept which corresponds to a large extent to the algorithm in medical practice

JWST NIRCam Observations of SN 1987A: Spitzer Comparison and Spectral Decomposition

JWST NIRCam observations at 1.5-4.5 $\mu$m have provided broad and narrow band imaging of the evolving remnant of SN 1987A with unparalleled sensitivity and spatial resolution. Comparing with previous marginally spatially resolved Spitzer IRAC observations from 2004-2019 confirms that the emission arises from the circumstellar equatorial ring (ER), and the current brightness at 3.6 and 4.5 $\mu$m was accurately predicted by extrapolation of the declining brightness tracked by IRAC. Despite the regular light curve, the NIRCam observations clearly reveal that much of this emission is from a newly developing outer portion of the ER. Spots in the outer ER tend to lie at position angles in between the well-known ER hotspots. We show that the bulk of the emission in the field can be represented by 5 standard spectral energy distributions (SEDs), each with a distinct origin and spatial distribution. This spectral decomposition provides a powerful technique for distinguishing overlapping emission from the circumstellar medium (CSM) and the supernova (SN) ejecta, excited by the forward and reverse shocks respectively.Comment: Accepted for publication in ApJ. 16 pages, 12 figures. 2 animations not included her

JWST NIRCam Observations of SN 1987A: Spitzer comparison and spectral decomposition

JWST Near Infrared Camera (NIRCam) observations at 1.5–4.5 μ m have provided broadband and narrowband imaging of the evolving remnant of SN 1987A with unparalleled sensitivity and spatial resolution. Comparing with previous marginally spatially resolved Spitzer Infrared Array Camera (IRAC) observations from 2004 to 2019 confirms that the emission arises from the circumstellar equatorial ring (ER), and the current brightness at 3.6 and 4.5 μ m was accurately predicted by extrapolation of the declining brightness tracked by IRAC. Despite the regular light curve, the NIRCam observations clearly reveal that much of this emission is from a newly developing outer portion of the ER. Spots in the outer ER tend to lie at position angles in between the well-known ER hotspots. We show that the bulk of the emission in the field can be represented by five standard spectral energy distributions, each with a distinct origin and spatial distribution. This spectral decomposition provides a powerful technique for distinguishing overlapping emission from the circumstellar medium and the supernova ejecta, excited by the forward and reverse shocks, respectively

THE CONCISE GUIDE TO PHARMACOLOGY 2021/22: G protein-coupled receptors

The Concise Guide to PHARMACOLOGY 2021/22 is the fifth in this series of biennial publications. The Concise Guide provides concise overviews, mostly in tabular format, of the key properties of nearly 1900 human drug targets with an emphasis on selective pharmacology (where available), plus links to the open access knowledgebase source of drug targets and their ligands (www.guidetopharmacology.org), which provides more detailed views of target and ligand properties. Although the Concise Guide constitutes over 500 pages, the material presented is substantially reduced compared to information and links presented on the website. It provides a permanent, citable, point-in-time record that will survive database updates. The full contents of this section can be found at http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/bph.15538. G protein-coupled receptors are one of the six major pharmacological targets into which the Guide is divided, with the others being: ion channels, nuclear hormone receptors, catalytic receptors, enzymes and transporters. These are presented with nomenclature guidance and summary information on the best available pharmacological tools, alongside key references and suggestions for further reading. The landscape format of the Concise Guide is designed to facilitate comparison of related targets from material contemporary to mid-2021, and supersedes data presented in the 2019/20, 2017/18, 2015/16 and 2013/14 Concise Guides and previous Guides to Receptors and Channels. It is produced in close conjunction with the Nomenclature and Standards Committee of the International Union of Basic and Clinical Pharmacology (NC-IUPHAR), therefore, providing official IUPHAR classification and nomenclature for human drug targets, where appropriate

Genome-wide analysis identifies 12 loci influencing human reproductive behavior.

The genetic architecture of human reproductive behavior-age at first birth (AFB) and number of children ever born (NEB)-has a strong relationship with fitness, human development, infertility and risk of neuropsychiatric disorders. However, very few genetic loci have been identified, and the underlying mechanisms of AFB and NEB are poorly understood. We report a large genome-wide association study of both sexes including 251,151 individuals for AFB and 343,072 individuals for NEB. We identified 12 independent loci that are significantly associated with AFB and/or NEB in a SNP-based genome-wide association study and 4 additional loci associated in a gene-based effort. These loci harbor genes that are likely to have a role, either directly or by affecting non-local gene expression, in human reproduction and infertility, thereby increasing understanding of these complex traits

The genetic architecture of type 2 diabetes

The genetic architecture of common traits, including the number, frequency, and effect sizes of inherited variants that contribute to individual risk, has been long debated. Genome-wide association studies have identified scores of common variants associated with type 2 diabetes, but in aggregate, these explain only a fraction of heritability. To test the hypothesis that lower-frequency variants explain much of the remainder, the GoT2D and T2D-GENES consortia performed whole genome sequencing in 2,657 Europeans with and without diabetes, and exome sequencing in a total of 12,940 subjects from five ancestral groups. To increase statistical power, we expanded sample size via genotyping and imputation in a further 111,548 subjects. Variants associated with type 2 diabetes after sequencing were overwhelmingly common and most fell within regions previously identified by genome-wide association studies. Comprehensive enumeration of sequence variation is necessary to identify functional alleles that provide important clues to disease pathophysiology, but large-scale sequencing does not support a major role for lower-frequency variants in predisposition to type 2 diabetes

Genome-wide association identifies nine common variants associated with fasting proinsulin levels and provides new insights into the pathophysiology of type 2 diabetes.

OBJECTIVE: Proinsulin is a precursor of mature insulin and C-peptide. Higher circulating proinsulin levels are associated with impaired β-cell function, raised glucose levels, insulin resistance, and type 2 diabetes (T2D). Studies of the insulin processing pathway could provide new insights about T2D pathophysiology. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: We have conducted a meta-analysis of genome-wide association tests of ∼2.5 million genotyped or imputed single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and fasting proinsulin levels in 10,701 nondiabetic adults of European ancestry, with follow-up of 23 loci in up to 16,378 individuals, using additive genetic models adjusted for age, sex, fasting insulin, and study-specific covariates. RESULTS: Nine SNPs at eight loci were associated with proinsulin levels (P < 5 × 10(-8)). Two loci (LARP6 and SGSM2) have not been previously related to metabolic traits, one (MADD) has been associated with fasting glucose, one (PCSK1) has been implicated in obesity, and four (TCF7L2, SLC30A8, VPS13C/C2CD4A/B, and ARAP1, formerly CENTD2) increase T2D risk. The proinsulin-raising allele of ARAP1 was associated with a lower fasting glucose (P = 1.7 × 10(-4)), improved β-cell function (P = 1.1 × 10(-5)), and lower risk of T2D (odds ratio 0.88; P = 7.8 × 10(-6)). Notably, PCSK1 encodes the protein prohormone convertase 1/3, the first enzyme in the insulin processing pathway. A genotype score composed of the nine proinsulin-raising alleles was not associated with coronary disease in two large case-control datasets. CONCLUSIONS: We have identified nine genetic variants associated with fasting proinsulin. Our findings illuminate the biology underlying glucose homeostasis and T2D development in humans and argue against a direct role of proinsulin in coronary artery disease pathogenesis