Impacts of fine scale variability on large scale atmospheric chemistry

Abstract The effect of tropospheric ozone as an air pollutant is normally simulated using regional or urban scale computer models, while global models often are used to study the role of ozone as a greenhouse gas. The chemical transformations involved in the ozone chemistry occur on all scales, and are often related nonlinearily to each other. Due to the relatively coarse spatial resolution used in global Chemistry-Transport Models (CTMs), inaccuracies will arise when emissions and chemical processes are averaged in a grid box. Additionally, meteorological small-scale processes (e.g. convection) impact the chemistry, and inaccuracies may increase if parameterizations are implemented on a coarse scale. The problem of neglecting urban scale processes is particularly important in climate studies because of the rapid urbanization that we experience today. In this thesis we have applied the WRF-Chem (Weather Research and Forecasting with Chemistry) model to study scale interactions in the ozone photochemistry, and to quantify inaccuracies in terms of effective emissions. The model is run for a three week summer period in 2003 over Europe, zooming in on the London metropolitan area using square horizontal grid resolutions of 81 km, 27 km, 9 km, 3 km, and 1 km. We use the RADM2 chemistry scheme, and as input data we apply a 1 km x 1 km anthropogenic emission inventory for the UK (DEFRA, 2007), and a 0.5 x 0.5 degree anthropogenic emission inventory for the rest of Europe (RETRO, 2006), together with assimilated meteorology from ECMWF as initial and boundary conditions. We have focused on column values of ozone and related chemical components in the London area, caused by London emissions, and results from the different resolutions have been compared. The results show an increase in the average net ozone column caused by London emissions when horizontal grid spacing is reduced from 81 km to 27 km. Most likely, these changes are caused by increased transport of chemical species out of the London area due to better representation of winds and boundary layer height in the latter case. There were only minor changes in the results between the scales 27 km, 9 km, and 3 km, while the 1 km resolution results gave an increase in ozone column values due to London emissions, causing a shift from net negative to net positive ozone in the London area. The changes from 3 km to 1 km probably arise because of higher resolution in emissions, so that the model better accounts for nonlinearities in the ozone chemistry. However, comparisons with measurements of chemical species show that there are uncertainties related to our results, implying that caution should be used when drawing conclusions. The agreement between model results and measurements were relatively good in the first half of the simulation period, but lack of vertical distribution in the emissions data caused large discrepancies during the last ten days

Seamless Hand-over Algorithm for Wireless Enterprise Networks

Masteroppgave i informasjons- og kommunikasjonsteknologi 2007 – Høgskolen i Agder, GrimstadThe mass deployment of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers’ (IEEE) 802.11 based wireless local area networks (WLAN) and increased sales in hand-held devices supporting WLAN have resulted in an urgent need to support fast WLAN handovers or roaming. The reason for this problem arising now is that hand-held devices are more mobile than a laptop and their users actively use their hand-held equipment while moving. Laptop users are often called nomadic users in contrast to the real mobile users. The customarily solution is that when a connection is lost with the associated access point, one tries to find a new access point and tries to connect to it. The process of finding a new access point and connecting to it takes too long time in current implementations. Some applications cannot tolerate to be interrupted or disconnected for a very long time period before the session breaks. Therefore we need mechanisms to make sure that the disconnection time is as low as possible. Our algorithm uses an improved threshold scheme to detect the handover. The algorithm avoids many unnecessary handovers and prevents rapidly dropped signal strength or poor connection quality. In addition, we do scanning and AP selection before critical situations occur and therefore are faster in disconnecting from the current AP. As a result, the whole disconnection time is only the handover execution time, which is much shorter than the customarily one’s. Furthermore, we use signal strength, hysteresis and trends to classify the candidate APs. The result allows us to choose the best one of them and then switch to it. Through thresholds and hysteresis based decisions we avoid the latent unnecessary handovers resulting in a undesired “yoyo” effect, where the client continuously jumps back and forth between APs. Our handover algorithm is signal strength based. For technical reasons, the signal strength is the main parameter we considered. In the future, several other quality parameters can be implemented into our algorithm to make the algorithm even more efficient, e.g., by querying APs about their current load and QoS resources

Understanding the user experience of customer service chatbots: What can we learn from customer satisfaction surveys?

Understanding and improving user experience is key to strengthening uptake and realizing the potential of chatbots for customer service. In this paper, we investigate customer satisfaction surveys as a source of insight into such user experience. A total of 5,687 customer satisfaction reports on users’ interactions with a customer service chatbot, and the corresponding chatbot interactions, are analyzed. The findings demonstrate that customer satisfaction reports are closely associated with the degree to which the problems motivating users’ chatbot interactions are resolved. Furthermore, the findings show substantial variation in the performance of different chatbot intents in terms of customer satisfaction and problem resolution. This implies that user experience varies substantially depending on the problems motivating users to interact with the chatbot. Finally, we identify key characteristics of the intents associated with particularly high or low customer experience, suggesting paths towards efficient improvement of chatbot user experience. Based on the findings, we point to key implications for theory and practice and suggest directions for future research.acceptedVersio

Atmospheric Abundances, Trends and Emissions of CFC-216ba, CFC-216ca and HCFC-225ca

The first observations of the feedstocks, CFC-216ba (1,2-dichlorohexafluoropropane) and CFC-216ca (1,3-dichlorohexafluoropropane), as well as the CFC substitute HCFC-225ca (3,3-dichloro-1,1,1,2,2-pentafluoropropane), are reported in air samples collected between 1978 and 2012 at Cape Grim, Tasmania. Present day (2012) mixing ratios are 37.8 ± 0.08 ppq (parts per quadrillion; 1015) and 20.2 ± 0.3 ppq for CFC-216ba and CFC-216ca, respectively. The abundance of CFC-216ba has been approximately constant for the past 20 years, whilst that of CFC-216ca is increasing, at a current rate of 0.2 ppq/year. Upper tropospheric air samples collected in 2013 suggest a further continuation of this trend. Inferred annual emissions peaked 421 at 0.18 Gg/year (CFC-216ba) and 0.05 Gg/year (CFC-216ca) in the mid-1980s and then decreased sharply as expected from the Montreal Protocol phase-out schedule for CFCs. The atmospheric trend of CFC-216ca and CFC-216ba translates into continuing emissions of around 0.01 Gg/year in 2011, indicating that significant banks still exist or that they are still being used. HCFC-225ca was not detected in air samples collected before 1992. The highest mixing ratio of 52 ± 1 ppq was observed in 2001. Increasing annual emissions were found in the 1990s (i.e., when HCFC-225ca was being introduced as a replacement for CFCs). Emissions peaked around 1999 at about 1.51 Gg/year. In accordance with the Montreal Protocol, restrictions on HCFC consumption and the short lifetime of HCFC-225ca, mixing ratios declined after 2001 to 23.3 ± 0.7 ppq by 2012

Aircraft-based observations and high-resolution simulations of an Icelandic dust storm

The first aircraft-based observations of an Icelandic dust storm are presented. The measurements were carried out over the ocean near Iceland's south coast in February 2007. This dust event occurred in conjunction with an easterly barrier jet of more than 30 m s<sup>−1</sup>. The aircraft measurements show high particle mass mixing ratios in an area of low wind speeds in the wake of Iceland near the coast, decreasing abruptly towards the jet. Simulations from the Weather Research and Forecasting Model coupled with Chemistry (WRF/Chem) indicate that the measured high mass mixing ratios and observed low visibility inside the wake are due to dust transported from Icelandic sand fields towards the ocean. This is confirmed by meteorological station data. Glacial outwash terrains located near the Mýrdalsjökull glacier are among simulated dust sources. Sea salt aerosols produced by the impact of strong winds on the ocean surface started to dominate as the aircraft flew away from Iceland into the jet. The present results support recent studies which suggest that Icelandic deserts should be considered as important dust sources in global and regional climate models

A New Halocarbon Absorption Model Based on HITRAN Cross-Section Data and New Estimates of Halocarbon Instantaneous Clear-Sky Radiative Forcing

The article describes a new practical model for the infrared absorption of chlorofluorocarbons and other gases with dense spectra, based on high-resolution transmission molecular absorption database (HITRAN) absorption cross-sections. The model is very simple, consisting of frequency-dependent polynomial coefficients describing the pressure and temperature dependence of absorption. Currently it is implemented for the halocarbon species required by the Radiative Forcing Model Intercomparison Project. In cases where cross-section data is available at a range of different temperatures and pressures, this approach offers practical advantages compared to previously available options, and is traceable, since the polynomial coefficients follow directly from the laboratory spectra. The new model is freely available and has several important applications, notably in remote sensing and in developing advanced radiation schemes for global circulation models that include halocarbon absorption. For demonstration, the model is applied to the problem of computing instantaneous clear-sky halocarbon radiative efficiencies and present day radiative forcing. Results are in reasonable agreement with earlier assessments that were carried out with the less explicit Pinnock method, and thus broadly validate that method. Plain Language Summary Chlorofluorocarbons and other related gases have dense and complicated absorption spectra that can be measured in the laboratory. We bring such measurements to a form that can be used for simulations of the transfer of radiation through the atmosphere. Then we use the new model to calculate new estimates of the climate impact of these man-made gases. The results broadly validate earlier calculations that were done with a less explicit method

Extratropical???Tropical Interaction Model Intercomparison Project (Etin-Mip): Protocol and Initial Results

This article introduces the Extratropical???Tropical Interaction Model Intercomparison Project (ETIN-MIP), where a set of fully coupled model experiments are designed to examine the sources of longstanding tropical precipitation biases in climate models. In particular, we reduce insolation over three targeted latitudinal bands of persistent model biases: the southern extratropics, the southern tropics, and the northern extratropics. To address the effect of regional energy bias corrections on the mean distribution of tropical precipitation, such as the double intertropical convergence zone problem, we evaluate the quasi-equilibrium response of the climate system corresponding to a 50-yr period after the 100 years of prescribed energy perturbation. Initial results show that, despite a large intermodel spread in each perturbation experiment due to differences in ocean heat uptake response and climate feedbacks across models, the southern tropics is most efficient at driving a meridional shift of tropical precipitation. In contrast, the extratropical energy perturbations are effectively damped by anomalous heat uptake over the subpolar oceans, thereby inducing a smaller meridional shift of tropical precipitation compared with the tropical energy perturbations. The ETIN-MIP experiments allow us to investigate the global implications of regional energy bias corrections, providing a route to guide the practice of model development, with implications for understanding dynamical responses to anthropogenic climate change and geoengineering

Global warming potentials and radiative efficiencies of halocarbons and related compounds: a comprehensive review

In the mid-1970s it was recognized that, as well as being substances that deplete stratospheric ozone, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) were strong greenhouse gases that could have substantial impacts on radiative forcing of climate change. Around a decade later, this group of radiatively active compounds was expanded to include a large number of replacements for ozone-depleting substances such as chlorocarbons, hydrochlorocarbons, hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), bromofluorocarbons, and bromochlorofluorocarbons. This paper systematically reviews the published literature concerning the radiative efficiencies (REs) of CFCs, bromofluorocarbons and bromochlorofluorocarbons (halons), HCFCs, HFCs, PFCs, SF6, NF3, and related halogen containing compounds. In addition we provide a comprehensive and self-consistent set of new calculations of REs and global warming potentials (GWPs) for these compounds, mostly employing atmospheric lifetimes taken from the available literature. We also present Global Temperature change Potentials (GTPs) for selected gases. Infrared absorption spectra used in the RE calculations were taken from databases and individual studies, and from experimental and ab initio computational studies. Evaluations of REs and GWPs are presented for more than 200 compounds. Our calculations yield REs significantly (> 5%) different from those in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) for 49 compounds. We present new RE values for more than 100 gases which were not included in AR4. A widely-used simple method to calculate REs and GWPs from absorption spectra and atmospheric lifetimes is assessed and updated. This is the most comprehensive review of the radiative efficiencies and global warming potentials of halogenated compounds performed to date

Regional and seasonal radiative forcing by perturbations to aerosol and ozone precursor emissions

Predictions of temperature and precipitation responses to changes in the anthropogenic emissions of climate forcers require the quantification of the radiative forcing exerted by those changes. This task is particularly difficult for near-term climate forcers like aerosols, methane, and ozone precursors because their short atmospheric lifetimes cause regionally and temporally inhomogeneous radiative forcings. This study quantifies specific radiative forcing, defined as the radiative forcing per unit change in mass emitted, for eight near-term climate forcers as a function of their source regions and the season of emission by using dedicated simulations by four general circulation and chemistry-transport models. Although differences in the representation of atmospheric chemistry and radiative processes in different models impede the creation of a uniform dataset, four distinct findings can be highlighted. Firstly, specific radiative forcing for sulfur dioxide and organic carbon are stronger when aerosol–cloud interactions are taken into account. Secondly, there is a lack of agreement on the sign of the specific radiative forcing of volatile organic compound perturbations, suggesting they are better avoided in climate mitigation strategies. Thirdly, the strong seasonalities of the specific radiative forcing of most forcers allow strategies to minimise positive radiative forcing based on the timing of emissions. Finally, European and shipping emissions exert stronger aerosol specific radiative forcings compared to East Asia where the baseline is more polluted. This study can therefore form the basis for further refining climate mitigation options based on regional and seasonal controls on emissions. For example, reducing summertime emissions of black carbon and wintertime emissions of sulfur dioxide in the more polluted regions is a possible way to improve air quality without weakening the negative radiative forcing of aerosols

Impact of forest fires, biogenic emissions and high temperatures on the elevated Eastern Mediterranean ozone levels during the hot summer of 2007

International audienceThe hot summer of 2007 in southeast Europe has been studied using two regional atmospheric chemistry models; WRF-Chem and EMEP MSC-W. The region was struck by three heat waves and a number of forest fire episodes, greatly affecting air pollution levels. We have focused on ozone and its precursors using state-of-the-art inventories for anthropogenic, biogenic and forest fire emissions. The models have been evaluated against measurement data, and processes leading to ozone formation have been quantified. Heat wave episodes are projected to occur more frequently in a future climate, and therefore this study also makes a contribution to climate change impact research. The plume from the Greek forest fires in August 2007 is clearly seen in satellite observations of CO and NO2 columns, showing extreme levels of CO in and downwindof the fires. Model simulations reflect the location and influence of the fires relatively well, but the modelled magnitude of CO in the plume core is too low. Most likely, this is caused by underestimation of CO in the emission inventories, suggesting that the CO/NOx ratios of fire emissions should be re-assessed. Moreover, higher maximum values are seen in WRF-Chem than in EMEP MSC-W, presumably due to differences in plume rise altitudes as the first model emits a larger fraction of the fire emissions in the lowermost model layer. The model results are also in fairly good agreement with surface ozone measurements. Biogenic VOC emissions reacting with anthropogenic NOx emissions are calculated to contribute significantly to the levels of ozone in the region, but the magnitude and geographical distribution depend strongly on the model and biogenic emission module used. During the July and August heat waves, ozone levels increased substantially due to a combination of forest fire emissions and the effect of high temperatures. We found that the largest temperature impact on ozone was through the temperature dependence of the biogenic emissions, closely followed by the effect of reduced dry deposiion caused by closing of the plants' stomata at very high temperatures. The impact of high temperatures on the ozone chemistry was much lower. The results suggest that forest fire emissions, and the temperature effect on biogenic emissions and dry deposition, will potentially lead to substantial ozone increases in a warmer climate