89 research outputs found
The Recurrent Current Crisis in Legal Education
Karl Llewellyn, the famous legal realist, commercial legal
scholar, and chief drafter of the Uniform Commercial Code, published
The Current Crisis in Legal Education seventy-three years ago.1 In that
article he argued that the casebook method's dominance of the law
school curriculum hindered legal education.2 Llewellyn acknowledged
the method's benefits but noted that excessive devotion to its approach
prevented law students from developing the full set of skills they
needed in practice. 3 Teaching centered on appellate cases, he argued,
encouraged students to focus too heavily on developing subject-matter
expertise at the expense of understanding how cases found their way
into appellate courts in the first place.4 Appellate cases, focused as they
are on a judge's reasoning, hid much of the work of the lawyer as advocate
and counselor that took place behind the scenes.5 The casebook
method therefore hindered attempts to "focus attention on the techniques
of solution, rather than on the answers," and to teach students
the skills of "legal crafts which have to be studied both in theory and
in practice in order to develop an adequate craftsman."
Slavery's Legalism: Lawyers and the Commercial Routine of Slavery
Eugenius Aristides Nisbet played a critical role in Georgia's secession from
the United States. Elected as a delegate to Georgia's 1861 secession convention,
Nisbet introduced a resolution in favor of severing ties with the
Union, and he led the committee that drafted his state's secession ordinance.
Nisbet was a trained lawyer who had served on the Georgia
Supreme Court, and his legal training shaped the way that he viewed secession.
He believed that the Constitution did not give states the right to
dissolve the Union; instead, this power rested solely in the people, and
he framed the resolution and ordinance accordingly. Thanks in part to
Nisbet, it was the "people of the State of Georgia" who "repealed,
rescinded and abrogated" their ratification of the Constitution in 1788.
Citing Slavery
The law of slavery is still good law. In the twenty-first century, American
judges and lawyers continue to cite case law developed in disputes involving enslaved people. These cases provide law for a wide variety of subject areas. Judges cite slavery to explicate the law of contracts, property, evidence, civil procedure, criminal procedure, statutory interpretation, torts, and many other fields. For the most part, judges cite these cases without acknowledging that the cases grew out of American slavery and without considering that a case's slave origins might lessen its persuasive authority. Nor do they examine the dignitary harms that the citation of slavery may impose. In citing slavery, lawyers thus demonstrate a myopic historical perspective that creates legal harms and reveals the ethical limitations of their profession. This Article illustrates the benefits a broader historical perspective can bring to bear on contemporary doctrinal issues. At a
time when American groups and institutions from businesses to universities are coming to grips with the legacy of slavery, the legal profession has an obligation to do the same
A Lidar-Radar Framework to Assess the Impact of Vertical Forest Structure on Interferometric Coherence
The DEEP2 Galaxy Redshift Survey: Design, Observations, Data Reduction, and Redshifts
We describe the design and data sample from the DEEP2 Galaxy Redshift Survey,
the densest and largest precision-redshift survey of galaxies at z ~ 1
completed to date. The survey has conducted a comprehensive census of massive
galaxies, their properties, environments, and large-scale structure down to
absolute magnitude M_B = -20 at z ~ 1 via ~90 nights of observation on the
DEIMOS spectrograph at Keck Observatory. DEEP2 covers an area of 2.8 deg^2
divided into four separate fields, observed to a limiting apparent magnitude of
R_AB=24.1. Objects with z < 0.7 are rejected based on BRI photometry in three
of the four DEEP2 fields, allowing galaxies with z > 0.7 to be targeted ~2.5
times more efficiently than in a purely magnitude-limited sample. Approximately
sixty percent of eligible targets are chosen for spectroscopy, yielding nearly
53,000 spectra and more than 38,000 reliable redshift measurements. Most of the
targets which fail to yield secure redshifts are blue objects that lie beyond z
~ 1.45. The DEIMOS 1200-line/mm grating used for the survey delivers high
spectral resolution (R~6000), accurate and secure redshifts, and unique
internal kinematic information. Extensive ancillary data are available in the
DEEP2 fields, particularly in the Extended Groth Strip, which has evolved into
one of the richest multiwavelength regions on the sky. DEEP2 surpasses other
deep precision-redshift surveys at z ~ 1 in terms of galaxy numbers, redshift
accuracy, sample number density, and amount of spectral information. We also
provide an overview of the scientific highlights of the DEEP2 survey thus far.
This paper is intended as a handbook for users of the DEEP2 Data Release 4,
which includes all DEEP2 spectra and redshifts, as well as for the
publicly-available DEEP2 DEIMOS data reduction pipelines. [Abridged]Comment: submitted to ApJS; data products available for download at
http://deep.berkeley.edu/DR4
The DEEP Groth Strip Galaxy Redshift Survey. VIII. The Evolution of Luminous Field Bulges at Redshift z ~ 1
We present a sample of over 50 luminous field bulges (including ellipticals)
found in the Groth Strip Survey (GSS), with 0.73< z < 1.04 and with bulge
magnitudes I <= 23. The exponential disk light is removed via decomposition of
HST images using GIM2D. We find that 85% of these bulges are nearly as red as
local E/S0's and have a shallow slope and a small color dispersion in the
color-luminosity relation, suggesting roughly coeval formation. The surface
brightnesses of these bulges are about 1 mag higher than local bulges. These
results are explained adopting a "drizzling" scenario where a metal-rich early
formation is later polluted by small amounts of additional star formation.
Almost all disks have the same or bluer colors than their accompanying bulges,
regardless of the bulge-disk ratio and bulge luminosity, as expected from
semi-analytic hierarchical galaxy formation models. We present evidence that
the few blue bulge candidates are not likely to be genuine blue ellipticals or
bulges. Our deeper, more extensive, and less disk-contaminated observations
challenge prior claims that 30% to 50% of field bulges or ellipticals are in a
blue, star-forming phase at z < 1. We conclude that field bulges and
ellipticals at z ~ 1, like luminous early- type cluster galaxies at the same
redshift, are already dominated by metal-rich, old stellar populations that
have been fading from a formation epoch earlier than z ~ 1.5. (abridged)Comment: ApJS accepted, 106 pages, 10 figures. Figure 14 in JPEG format. Full
version available at http://deep.ucolick.org/publications.htm
Functional genomic screening identifies dual leucine zipper kinase as a key mediator of retinal ganglion cell death
Glaucoma, a major cause of blindness worldwide, is a neurodegenerative optic neuropathy in which vision loss is caused by loss of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs). To better define the pathways mediating RGC death and identify targets for the development of neuroprotective drugs, we developed a high-throughput RNA interference screen with primary RGCs and used it to screen the full mouse kinome. The screen identified dual leucine zipper kinase (DLK) as a key neuroprotective target in RGCs. In cultured RGCs, DLK signaling is both necessary and sufficient for cell death. DLK undergoes robust posttranscriptional up-regulation in response to axonal injury in vitro and in vivo. Using a conditional knockout approach, we confirmed that DLK is required for RGC JNK activation and cell death in a rodent model of optic neuropathy. In addition, tozasertib, a small molecule protein kinase inhibitor with activity against DLK, protects RGCs from cell death in rodent glaucoma and traumatic optic neuropathy models. Together, our results establish a previously undescribed drug/drug target combination in glaucoma, identify an early marker of RGC injury, and provide a starting point for the development of more specific neuroprotective DLK inhibitors for the treatment of glaucoma, nonglaucomatous forms of optic neuropathy, and perhaps other CNS neurodegenerations
Global, regional, and national incidence and mortality for HIV, tuberculosis, and malaria during 1990–2013: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013
BACKGROUND: The Millennium Declaration in 2000 brought special global attention to HIV, tuberculosis, and malaria through the formulation of Millennium Development Goal (MDG) 6. The Global Burden of Disease 2013 study provides a consistent and comprehensive approach to disease estimation for between 1990 and 2013, and an opportunity to assess whether accelerated progress has occured since the Millennium Declaration. METHODS: To estimate incidence and mortality for HIV, we used the UNAIDS Spectrum model appropriately modified based on a systematic review of available studies of mortality with and without antiretroviral therapy (ART). For concentrated epidemics, we calibrated Spectrum models to fit vital registration data corrected for misclassification of HIV deaths. In generalised epidemics, we minimised a loss function to select epidemic curves most consistent with prevalence data and demographic data for all-cause mortality. We analysed counterfactual scenarios for HIV to assess years of life saved through prevention of mother-to-child transmission (PMTCT) and ART. For tuberculosis, we analysed vital registration and verbal autopsy data to estimate mortality using cause of death ensemble modelling. We analysed data for corrected case-notifications, expert opinions on the case-detection rate, prevalence surveys, and estimated cause-specific mortality using Bayesian meta-regression to generate consistent trends in all parameters. We analysed malaria mortality and incidence using an updated cause of death database, a systematic analysis of verbal autopsy validation studies for malaria, and recent studies (2010-13) of incidence, drug resistance, and coverage of insecticide-treated bednets. FINDINGS: Globally in 2013, there were 1·8 million new HIV infections (95% uncertainty interval 1·7 million to 2·1 million), 29·2 million prevalent HIV cases (28·1 to 31·7), and 1·3 million HIV deaths (1·3 to 1·5). At the peak of the epidemic in 2005, HIV caused 1·7 million deaths (1·6 million to 1·9 million). Concentrated epidemics in Latin America and eastern Europe are substantially smaller than previously estimated. Through interventions including PMTCT and ART, 19·1 million life-years (16·6 million to 21·5 million) have been saved, 70·3% (65·4 to 76·1) in developing countries. From 2000 to 2011, the ratio of development assistance for health for HIV to years of life saved through intervention was US$4498 in developing countries. Including in HIV-positive individuals, all-form tuberculosis incidence was 7·5 million (7·4 million to 7·7 million), prevalence was 11·9 million (11·6 million to 12·2 million), and number of deaths was 1·4 million (1·3 million to 1·5 million) in 2013. In the same year and in only individuals who were HIV-negative, all-form tuberculosis incidence was 7·1 million (6·9 million to 7·3 million), prevalence was 11·2 million (10·8 million to 11·6 million), and number of deaths was 1·3 million (1·2 million to 1·4 million). Annualised rates of change (ARC) for incidence, prevalence, and death became negative after 2000. Tuberculosis in HIV-negative individuals disproportionately occurs in men and boys (versus women and girls); 64·0% of cases (63·6 to 64·3) and 64·7% of deaths (60·8 to 70·3). Globally, malaria cases and deaths grew rapidly from 1990 reaching a peak of 232 million cases (143 million to 387 million) in 2003 and 1·2 million deaths (1·1 million to 1·4 million) in 2004. Since 2004, child deaths from malaria in sub-Saharan Africa have decreased by 31·5% (15·7 to 44·1). Outside of Africa, malaria mortality has been steadily decreasing since 1990. INTERPRETATION: Our estimates of the number of people living with HIV are 18·7% smaller than UNAIDS's estimates in 2012. The number of people living with malaria is larger than estimated by WHO. The number of people living with HIV, tuberculosis, or malaria have all decreased since 2000. At the global level, upward trends for malaria and HIV deaths have been reversed and declines in tuberculosis deaths have accelerated. 101 countries (74 of which are developing) still have increasing HIV incidence. Substantial progress since the Millennium Declaration is an encouraging sign of the effect of global action. FUNDING: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation
Alzheimer disease macrophages shuttle amyloid-beta from neurons to vessels, contributing to amyloid angiopathy
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