Neurogenic inflammation after traumatic brain injury and its potentiation of classical inflammation

Background: The neuroinflammatory response following traumatic brain injury (TBI) is known to be a key secondary injury factor that can drive ongoing neuronal injury. Despite this, treatments that have targeted aspects of the inflammatory pathway have not shown significant efficacy in clinical trials. Main body: We suggest that this may be because classical inflammation only represents part of the story, with activation of neurogenic inflammation potentially one of the key initiating inflammatory events following TBI. Indeed, evidence suggests that the transient receptor potential cation channels (TRP channels), TRPV1 and TRPA1, are polymodal receptors that are activated by a variety of stimuli associated with TBI, including mechanical shear stress, leading to the release of neuropeptides such as substance P (SP). SP augments many aspects of the classical inflammatory response via activation of microglia and astrocytes, degranulation of mast cells, and promoting leukocyte migration. Furthermore, SP may initiate the earliest changes seen in blood-brain barrier (BBB) permeability, namely the increased transcellular transport of plasma proteins via activation of caveolae. This is in line with reports that alterations in transcellular transport are seen first following TBI, prior to decreases in expression of tight-junction proteins such as claudin-5 and occludin. Indeed, the receptor for SP, the tachykinin NK1 receptor, is found in caveolae and its activation following TBI may allow influx of albumin and other plasma proteins which directly augment the inflammatory response by activating astrocytes and microglia. Conclusions: As such, the neurogenic inflammatory response can exacerbate classical inflammation via a positive feedback loop, with classical inflammatory mediators such as bradykinin and prostaglandins then further stimulating TRP receptors. Accordingly, complete inhibition of neuroinflammation following TBI may require the inhibition of both classical and neurogenic inflammatory pathways.Frances Corrigan, Kimberley A. Mander, Anna V. Leonard and Robert Vin

Breakeven Evaluation of Irrigation System in Tennessee

Conflict over water use in the southeastern US is increasingly common as communities and industries fund themselves without adequate water supplies. However, agricultural water use in the southeastern states has received relatively little attention despite rapid growth in the use of irrigation by the region’s farmers. This study determines the breakeven prices for dryland and irrigated crops produced in the Tennessee River Basin and Hiwassee-Mississippi watersheds. The analysis focuses on five major crops produced in the region: corn, soybean, cotton, wheat and sorghum. Tillage practices considered are conventional, reduced, and no-till. Irrigation technologies include furrows, center pivot, and big-gun/traveler systems. Water sources include surface and wells. Center pivot systems are currently the dominant irrigation practice in the region. We hypothesize that gravity-based systems are more profitable under certain conditions. Well installation costs largely determine the profitability of irrigation practices in the study area. Key differences will be driven by the relative price of commodities, the production portfolio of producers, and energy, labor, and installation costs. Repair expenses for irrigation systems are insensitive to different well depths, but sensitive to the type of irrigation system implemented. These findings will be useful for producers augmenting their operations with irrigation systems

Monitorização eletroencefalográfica ambulatorial na epilepsia de difícil controle da infância Eletroencephalographic monitoring in refractory epilepsies in childhood

O objetivo deste estudo foi analisar através da monitorização eletroencefalográfica ambulatorial contínua e prolongada a distribuição temporal de descargas paroxísticas em sono e em vigília de crianças e adolescentes com epilepsia de difícil controle medicamentoso. Foram selecionadas 21 pacientes na faixa etária de 4 a 17 anos de idade com epilepsia de difícil controle medicamentoso, sendo 52,3 % (n=11) do sexo masculino e 47,7 % (n=10) do feminino, provenientes da Disciplina de Neurologia da Universidade Federal de São Paulo. Os exames foram realizados com o equipamento Bioware EEG-2008 de monitorização eletroencefalográfica ambulatorial prolongada (Holter cerebral). Observamos maior frequência das descargas epilépticas isoladas e agrupadas no sono diurno e noturno em relação a vigília; o sono, diurno e noturno, levou a ativação de descargas epilépticas, tanto isoladas como agrupadas. O Holter cerebral foi mais eficaz em detectar descargas epileptiformes do que o EEG de rotina em 33,33% dos pacientes. O Holter cerebral se mostrou método útil e preciso na detecção de descargas epilépticas, auxiliando na avaliação das flutuações da frequência da atividade paroxística em crianças com epilepsia de difícil controle medicamentoso, tanto em relação as atividades da vida cotidiana, quanto em relação ao ciclo biológico de sono e vigília.<br>The objective of our study was, by means of continuous prolonged ambulatory electroencephalographic monitoring, to analyze the temporal distribution of paroxysmal discharges during sleep and awake in children and adolescents with refractory epilepsies. Twenty-one patients in the 4-to-17 year age bracket with refractory epilepsies, with 52.3% (n=11) male and 47.6% (n=10) female from the Discipline of Neurology of the Universidade Federal de São Paulo (Federal University of São Paulo). Cerebral Holter was carried out with Bioware EEG-2008 of prolonged ambulatory electroencephalographic monitoring equipment. We observed greater frequency of isolated and grouped epileptic discharges in day and in night sleep in relation to awake; day and night sleep led to activation of epileptic discharges, both isolated and grouped. The cerebral Holter was more effective in detecting epileptiform discharges than the routine EEG in 33.33% of the patients. The cerebral Holter proved a useful and precise method in detecting epileptic discharges, as an aid in the assessment of the fluctuations in frequency of paroxysmal activity in children with refractory epilepsies, both in relation to activities in daily life, and to the relation to the biological cycle of sleep and awake