El Uso de la cláusula democrática y de derechos humanos en las relaciones exteriores de la Unión Europea

Desde finales de los 80 se produce un aumento significativo y rápido de los programas de asistencia financiados por la Unión y que incluyen medidas destinadas a la protección y promoción de los derechos humanos. Sin embargo, este aspecto positivo de promoción encuentra su anverso en una serie de medidas que la UE introduce en sus acuerdos con terceros y que permiten, en caso de que se produzcan violaciones en este campo que la Unión pueda dar por terminado, o bien suspender, el acuerdo en cuestión. Este tipo de medidas son las llamadas cláusulas de condicionalidad democrática o de condicionalidad negativa, objeto de estudio del presente working paper. Dichas cláusulas establecen que los derechos humanos y los principios democráticos se consideren elementos esenciales en la relación con la Unión, lo que permite que en caso de incumplimiento se pueda llegar a la terminación del acuerdo. Si bien inicialmente los criterios que se tenían en cuenta para condicionar créditos o ayudas eran los económicos, con el tiempo vemos como crece la importancia que van adquiriendo los derechos humanos y la democracia como requisitos indispensables en base a los cuales se condicionan las ayudas económicas o la celebración de acuerdos internacionales, y un medio en manos de la UE para mostrar su disconformidad ante determinadas situaciones, y para presionar a los gobiernos infractores y que deseen establecer relaciones con la comunidad. En el presente working paper se analizará el origen y la posterior consolidación como práctica habitual en las relaciones con la UE. Asimismo, se dará un repaso a la tipología utilizada en el clausulado de los Tratados con países tercerosDes de finals dels 80 es produeix un augment significatiu i ràpid dels programes d'assistència finançats per la Unió i que inclouen mesures destinades a la protecció i promoció dels drets humans. No obstant això, aquest aspecte positiu de promoció troba el seu anvers en una sèrie de mesures que la UE introdueix en els seus acords amb tercers i que permeten, en cas que es produeixin violacions en aquest camp que la Unió pugui donar per acabat, o bé suspendre , l'acord en qüestió. Aquest tipus de mesures són les anomenades clàusules de condicionalitat democràtica o de condicionalitat negativa, objecte d'estudi d'aquest working paper. Aquestes clàusules estableixen que els drets humans i els principis democràtics es considerin elements essencials en la relació amb la Unió, el que permet que en cas d'incompliment es pugui arribar a la terminació de l'acord. Si bé inicialment els criteris que es tenien en compte per condicionar crèdits o ajudes eren els econòmics, amb el temps veiem com creix la importància que van adquirint els drets humans i la democràcia com a requisits indispensables en base als quals es condicionen les ajudes econòmiques o la celebració d'acords internacionals, i un mitjà en mans de la UE per mostrar la seva disconformitat davant determinades situacions, i per pressionar els governs infractors i que desitgin establir relacions amb la comunitat. En aquest working paper s'analitzarà l'origen i la posterior consolidació com a pràctica habitual en les relacions amb la UE. Així mateix, es donarà un repàs a la tipologia utilitzada en les clàusules dels tractats amb països tercer

Study of a micro force sensor for colloidal engines applications

The goal of this study is the design, manufacturing and test of micro-force sensors based on MEMS technology. With a wide range of application it focuses on the characterization of the propulsive properties of the colloidal engines in the aerospace field. There is a wide range of applications for microforce sensors but in this project we have focused on the characteristics of colloidal engines for aerospace field in order to determine the resolution and the ranges of forces that the sensor should measure

Proteorhodopsins dominate the expression of phototrophic mechanisms in seasonal and dynamic marine picoplankton communities

The most abundant and ubiquitous microbes in the surface ocean use light as an energy source, capturing it via complex chlorophyll-based photosystems or simple retinal-based rhodopsins. Studies in various ocean regimes compared the abundance of these mechanisms, but few investigated their expression. Here we present the first full seasonal study of abundance and expression of light-harvesting mechanisms (proteorhodopsin, PR; aerobic anoxygenic photosynthesis, AAnP; and oxygenic photosynthesis, PSI) from deep-sequenced metagenomes and metatranscriptomes of marine picoplankton (<1 µm) at three coastal stations of the San Pedro Channel in the Pacific Ocean. We show that, regardless of season or sampling location, the most common phototrophic mechanism in metagenomes of this dynamic region was PR (present in 65–104% of the genomes as estimated by single-copy recA), followed by PSI (5–104%) and AAnP (5–32%). Furthermore, the normalized expression (RNA to DNA ratio) of PR genes was higher than that of oxygenic photosynthesis (average ± standard deviation 26.2 ± 8.4 vs. 11 ± 9.7), and the expression of the AAnP marker gene was significantly lower than both mechanisms (0.013 ± 0.02). We demonstrate that PR expression was dominated by the SAR11-cluster year-round, followed by other Alphaproteobacteria, unknown-environmental clusters and Gammaproteobacteria. This highly dynamic system further allowed us to identify a trend for PR spectral tuning, in which blue-absorbing PR genes dominate in areas with low chlorophyll-a concentrations (<0.25 µgL−1). This suggests that PR phototrophy is not an accessory function but instead a central mechanism that can regulate photoheterotrophic population dynamics

Microbial rhodopsins are major contributors to the solar energy captured in the sea

All known phototrophic metabolisms on Earth rely on one of three categories of energy-converting pigments: chlorophyll-a (rarely -d), bacteriochlorophyll-a (rarely -b), and retinal, which is the chromophore in rhodopsins. While the significance of chlorophylls in solar energy capture has been studied for decades, the contribution of retinal-based phototrophy to this process remains largely unexplored. We report the first vertical distributions of the three energy-converting pigments measured along a contrasting nutrient gradient through the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean. The highest rhodopsin concentrations were observed above the deep chlorophyll-a maxima, and their geographical distribution tended to be inversely related to that of chlorophyll-a. We further show that proton-pumping proteorhodopsins potentially absorb as much light energy as chlorophyll-a–based phototrophy and that this energy is sufficient to sustain bacterial basal metabolism. This suggests that proteorhodopsins are a major energy-transducing mechanism to harvest solar energy in the surface ocean

Mosaic patterns of B-vitamin synthesis and utilization in a natural marine microbial community

Aquatic environments contain large communities of microorganisms whose synergistic interactions mediate the cycling of major and trace nutrients, including vitamins. B-vitamins are essential coenzymes that many organisms cannot synthesize. Thus, their exchange among de novo synthesizers and auxotrophs is expected to play an important role in the microbial consortia and explain some of the temporal and spatial changes observed in diversity. In this study, we analyzed metatranscriptomes of a natural marine microbial community, diel sampled quarterly over one year to try to identify the potential major B-vitamin synthesizers and consumers. Transcriptomic data showed that the best-represented taxa dominated the expression of synthesis genes for some B-vitamins but lacked transcripts for others. For instance, Rhodobacterales dominated the expression of vitamin-B12 synthesis, but not of vitamin-B7, whose synthesis transcripts were mainly represented by Flavobacteria. In contrast, bacterial groups that constituted less than 4% of the community (e.g., Verrucomicrobia) accounted for most of the vitamin-B1 synthesis transcripts. Furthermore, ambient vitamin-B1 concentrations were higher in samples collected during the day, and were positively correlated with chlorophyll-a concentrations. Our analysis supports the hypothesis that the mosaic of metabolic interdependencies through B-vitamin synthesis and exchange are key processes that contribute to shaping microbial communities in nature

Proteorhodopsin Phototrophy Promotes Survival of Marine Bacteria during Starvation

Mutational analysis provides direct evidence for the link between proteorhodopsin light-harvesting and enhanced survival of marine bacteria

Metapopulation theory identifies biogeographical patterns among core and satellite marine bacteria scaling from tens to thousands of kilometers:Applied metapopulation theory for marine microbes

Metapopulation theory developed in terrestrial ecology provides applicable frameworks for interpreting the role of local and regional processes in shaping species distribution patterns. Yet, empirical testing of metapopulation models on microbial communities is essentially lacking. We determined regional bacterioplankton dynamics from monthly transect sampling in the Baltic Sea Proper using 16S rRNA gene sequencing. A strong positive trend was found between local relative abundance and occupancy of populations. Notably, the occupancy-frequency distributions were significantly bimodal with a satellite mode of rare endemic populations and a core mode of abundant cosmopolitan populations (e.g. Synechococcus, SAR11 and SAR86 clade members). Temporal changes in population distributions supported several theoretical frameworks. Still, bimodality was found among bacterioplankton communities across the entire Baltic Sea, and was also frequent in globally distributed datasets. Datasets spanning waters with widely different physicochemical characteristics or environmental gradients typically lacked significant bimodal patterns. When such datasets were divided into subsets with coherent environmental conditions, bimodal patterns emerged, highlighting the importance of positive feedbacks between local abundance and occupancy within specific biomes. Thus, metapopulation theory applied to microbial biogeography can provide novel insights into the mechanisms governing shifts in biodiversity resulting from natural or anthropogenically induced changes in the environment

Integrated metatranscriptomic and metagenomic analyses of stratified microbial assemblages in the open ocean

As part of an ongoing survey of microbial community gene expression in the ocean, we sequenced and compared ~38 Mbp of community transcriptomes and ~157 Mbp of community genomes from four bacterioplankton samples, along a defined depth profile at Station ALOHA in North Pacific subtropical gyre (NPSG). Taxonomic analysis suggested that the samples were dominated by three taxa: Prochlorales, Consistiales and Cenarchaeales, which comprised 36–69% and 29–63% of the annotated sequences in the four DNA and four cDNA libraries, respectively. The relative abundance of these taxonomic groups was sometimes very different in the DNA and cDNA libraries, suggesting differential relative transcriptional activities per cell. For example, the 125 m sample genomic library was dominated by Pelagibacter (~36% of sequence reads), which contributed fewer sequences to the community transcriptome (~11%). Functional characterization of highly expressed genes suggested taxon-specific contributions to specific biogeochemical processes. Examples included Roseobacter relatives involved in aerobic anoxygenic phototrophy at 75 m, and an unexpected contribution of low abundance Crenarchaea to ammonia oxidation at 125 m. Read recruitment using reference microbial genomes indicated depth-specific partitioning of coexisting microbial populations, highlighted by a transcriptionally active high-light-like Prochlorococcus population in the bottom of the photic zone. Additionally, nutrient-uptake genes dominated Pelagibacter transcripts, with apparent enrichment for certain transporter types (for example, the C4-dicarboxylate transport system) over others (for example, phosphate transporters). In total, the data support the utility of coupled DNA and cDNA analyses for describing taxonomic and functional attributes of microbial communities in their natural habitats.Gordon and Betty Moore FoundationUnited States. Dept. of EnergyNational Science Foundation (U.S.) (Science and Technology Center Award EF0424599

Time-series analyses of Monterey Bay coastal microbial picoplankton using a ‘genome proxy’ microarray

To investigate the temporal, spatial and phylogenetic resolution of marine microbial community structure and variability, we designed and expanded a genome proxy array (an oligonucleotide microarray targeting marine microbial genome fragments and genomes), evaluated it against metagenomic sequencing, and applied it to time-series samples from the Monterey Bay. The expanded array targeted 268 microbial genotypes across much of the known diversity of cultured and uncultured marine microbes. The target abundances measured by the array were highly correlated to pyrosequence-based abundances (linear regression R2 = 0.85–0.91, P < 0.0001). Fifty-seven samples from ∼4 years in Monterey Bay were examined with the array, spanning the photic zone (0 m), the base of the surface mixed layer (30 m) and the subphotic zone (200 m). A significant portion of the expanded genome proxy array's targets showed signal (95 out of 268 targets present in ≥ 1 sample). The multi-year community survey showed the consistent presence of a core group of common and abundant targeted taxa at each depth in Monterey Bay, higher variability among shallow than deep samples, and episodic occurrences of more transient marine genotypes. The abundance of the most dominant genotypes peaked after strong episodic upwelling events. The genome-proxy array's ability to track populations of closely related genotypes indicated population shifts within several abundant target taxa, with specific populations in some cases clustering by depth or oceanographic season. Although 51 cultivated organisms were targeted (representing 19% of the array) the majority of targets detected and of total target signal (85% and ∼92% respectively) were from uncultivated genotypes, often those derived from Monterey Bay. The array provided a relatively cost-effective approach (∼$15 per array) for surveying the natural history of uncultivated lineages.Gordon and Betty Moore FoundationNational Science Foundation (U.S.) (Science and Technology Center Award EF0424599)National Science Foundation (U.S.) (Microbial Observatory Award MCB-0348001)United States. Dept. of Energy. Office of Scienc

Light-induced transcriptional responses associated with proteorhodopsin-enhanced growth in a marine flavobacterium

Proteorhodopsin (PR) is a photoprotein that functions as a light-driven proton pump in diverse marine Bacteria and Archaea. Recent studies have suggested that PR may enhance both growth rate and yield in some flavobacteria when grown under nutrient-limiting conditions in the light. The direct involvement of PR, and the metabolic details enabling light-stimulated growth, however, remain uncertain. Here, we surveyed transcriptional and growth responses of a PR-containing marine flavobacterium during carbon-limited growth in the light and the dark. As previously reported (Gómez-Consarnau et al., 2007), Dokdonia strain MED134 exhibited light-enhanced growth rates and cell yields under low carbon growth conditions. Inhibition of retinal biosynthesis abolished the light-stimulated growth response, supporting a direct role for retinal-bound PR in light-enhanced growth. Among protein-coding transcripts, both PR and retinal biosynthetic enzymes showed significant upregulation in the light. Other light-associated proteins, including bacterial cryptochrome and DNA photolyase, were also expressed at significantly higher levels in the light. Membrane transporters for Na+/phosphate and Na+/alanine symporters, and the Na+-translocating NADH-quinone oxidoreductase (NQR) linked electron transport chain, were also significantly upregulated in the light. Culture experiments using a specific inhibitor of Na+-translocating NQR indicated that sodium pumping via NQR is a critical metabolic process in the light-stimulated growth of MED134. In total, the results suggested the importance of both the PR-enabled, light-driven proton gradient, as well as the generation of a Na+ ion gradient, as essential components for light-enhanced growth in these flavobacteria.Gordon and Betty Moore FoundationNational Science Foundation (U.S.) (NSF Science and Technology Center Award EF0424599.)Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (Postdoctoral Fellowships for Research Abroad