A LIFE-COURSE APPROACH TO CO-OFFENDING IN ORGANIZED CRIME

Uno degli aspetti più documentati del comportamento deviante è che una porzione considerevole di reati è commessa da più persone che collaborano tra loro, e non da criminali che agiscono in autonomia. Oltre ad analizzare le caratteristiche della compartecipazione nei reati, alcuni studi recenti si sono focalizzati sulla comprensione della sua evoluzione lungo la carriera criminale dell’individuo, e sul suo impatto sulla traiettoria criminale. Il concetto di collaborazione criminale è particolarmente rilevante nel contesto dei gruppi criminali organizzati, per i quali le interazioni tra i membri costituiscono l’essenza del loro funzionamento, e i reati commessi sono spesso logisticamente complessi. Ciononostante, il fenomeno della collaborazione criminale ha ricevuto scarsa attenzione nella ricerca sulla criminalità organizzata, e nessuno studio analizza il suo ruolo nel definire la traiettoria criminale del singolo individuo che entra a fare parte di un'organizzazione criminale. Il presente studio mira a colmare questa lacuna in letteratura analizzando i dati sui 178.427 reati commessi da tutti gli 11.138 individui condannati per associazione mafiosa in Italia tra il 1985 e il 2017. I dati includono informazioni sull’eventuale concorso in reato per ogni crimine commesso. L’analisi condotta si avvale di diverse metodologie quantitative con lo scopo di fornire un quadro descrittivo della collaborazione criminale nella criminalità organizzata; determinare se i membri delle organizzazioni criminali hanno diverse traiettorie longitudinali di collaborazione criminale; comprendere quale sia l’impatto di commettere crimini in collaborazione con altri individui sul comportamento criminale futuro; e studiare come la collaborazione criminale sia correlata con il reclutamento nella criminalità organizzata. I risultati dell’analisi dimostrano che il concorso in reato non è una caratteristica incidentale dei crimini commessi dagli individui che fanno parte dei gruppi criminali organizzati. Alcune delle caratteristiche della collaborazione criminale nel contesto della criminalità organizzata riflettono i risultati principali ottenuti negli studi condotti in altre popolazioni criminali, ma emergono alcune peculiarità. Inoltre, il trend aggregato di compartecipazione nei reati dei mafiosi italiani può essere approssimato da cinque traiettorie che raggruppano individui con caratteristiche specifiche. Infine, la collaborazione criminale appare correlata con dei cambiamenti nei successivi comportamenti criminali degli individui: in particolare, è connessa a una più alta probabilità di commettere reati violenti, e di entrare a far parte dell’organizzazione criminale nel breve periodo. Lo studio discute questi risultati alla luce della letteratura sullo sviluppo dei comportamenti criminali per i membri dei gruppi criminali organizzati, e in relazione alla ricerca esistente sulle cause e conseguenze di commettere reati in collaborazione con altri individui.One of the most documented findings on delinquent behavior is that many crimes are committed in the company of others rather than by solo offenders. Besides studying the characteristics of co-offending, recent works have focused on understanding its evolution over the individual criminal career, and its impact on the offending trajectory. Co-offending is especially relevant within organized criminal groups, where interactions among participating offenders constitute the core functioning of the criminal organization, and crimes committed are often logistically complex. In spite of this, few studies on co-offending in organized crime exist, and none of them investigates the role that co-offending has on the offending pathway of the single individual. This study addresses this gap in research by analyzing data on all the 178,427 crimes committed by 11,138 offenders convicted for mafia association in Italy between 1985 and 2017. The data set includes information on whether each crime was committed with accomplices. The analysis exploits different quantitative methodologies with the aim to describe the characteristics of co-offenses and co-offenders in organized crime; determine whether organized crime offenders have different longitudinal co-offending trajectories; investigate whether committing crimes with others impacts future offending; and understand how co-offending is related to recruitment into organized crime. Results demonstrate that co-offending is not an incidental feature of crimes committed by organized crime offenders. Some of the characteristics of co-offending in organized crime reflect findings from other offending samples, but some peculiarities emerge. Furthermore, the longitudinal co-offending behavior of Italian organized crime offenders is best approximated by five trajectories that group offenders with distinct characteristics. Finally, co-offending is related to changes in the future offending behavior of organized crime offenders: in particular, it is related to higher chances of engaging in violent forms of delinquency and experiencing organized crime recruitment in the short term. These findings are discussed in relation to both research on the developmental course of offending for members of organized criminal groups, and existing knowledge on the causes and consequences of offending with others

Life-Course Criminal Trajectories of Mafia Members

Through a novel data set comprising the criminal records of 11,138 convicted mafia offenders, we compute criminal career parameters and trajectories through group-based trajectory modeling. Mafia offenders report prolific and persistent careers (16.1 crimes over 16.5 years on average), with five distinct trajectories (low frequency, high frequency, early starter, moderate persistence, high persistence). While showing some similarities with general offenders, the trajectories of mafia offenders also exhibit significant differences, with several groups offending well into their middle and late adulthood, notwithstanding intense criminal justice sanctions. These patterns suggest that several mafia offenders are life-course persisters and career criminals and that the involvement in the mafias is a negative turning point extending the criminal careers beyond those observed in general offenders

Modeling the structure and dynamics of transnational illicit networks: an application to cigarette trafficking

Many illicit markets are transnational in nature: illicit products are consumed in a country different from the one in which they were produced. Therefore, reconstructing the trafficking network and estimating the size of cross-border illicit flows are crucial steps to gain better understanding of these crimes and to enforce actions aimed at countering them. In this respect, the present study outlines a methodology with which to map and size illicit flows and applies it in estimation of transnational cigarette trafficking flows. The proposed methodology traces each step in the paths followed by illicit cigarettes flowing from their origin to the final consumption country and then estimates the quantity of cigarettes moving between each pair of countries. It exploits data on consumption of illicit cigarettes in 57 countries located in Europe, the Middle East, Central Asia, and North Africa, together with data on seizure cases and geographical information for 158 countries worldwide. These data are combined by a function that assigns a likelihood value of illicit cigarettes being transported between any pair of countries. An algorithm is then implemented in order to identify the most likely paths from the origin to the destination country. By merging results for all the different combinations of origins and estinations, this study estimates the size of all cross-border illicit flows and reconstructs a dynamic transnational cigarette trafficking network for the period 2008\u20132017. The results highlight the multifaceted role of countries in the cigarette trafficking network, the emergence of identifiable cigarette trafficking routes, and the evolution over time of the structure of this transnational illicit network. Finally, the paper discusses how the methodology developed could be adapted to the study of other transnational crimes

Timing of surgery following SARS‐CoV‐2 infection: an international prospective cohort study

Peri-operative SARS-CoV-2 infection increases postoperative mortality. The aim of this study was to determine the optimal duration of planned delay before surgery in patients who have had SARS-CoV-2 infection. This international, multicentre, prospective cohort study included patients undergoing elective or emergency surgery during October 2020. Surgical patients with pre-operative SARS-CoV-2 infection were compared with those without previous SARS-CoV-2 infection. The primary outcome measure was 30-day postoperative mortality. Logistic regression models were used to calculate adjusted 30-day mortality rates stratified by time from diagnosis of SARS-CoV-2 infection to surgery. Among 140,231 patients (116 countries), 3127 patients (2.2%) had a pre-operative SARS-CoV-2 diagnosis. Adjusted 30-day mortality in patients without SARS-CoV-2 infection was 1.5% (95%CI 1.4–1.5). In patients with a pre-operative SARS-CoV-2 diagnosis, mortality was increased in patients having surgery within 0–2 weeks, 3–4 weeks and 5–6 weeks of the diagnosis (odds ratio (95%CI) 4.1% (3.3–4.8), 3.9% (2.6–5.1) and 3.6% (2.0–5.2), respectively). Surgery performed ≥ 7 weeks after SARS-CoV-2 diagnosis was associated with a similar mortality risk to baseline (odds ratio (95%CI) 1.5% (0.9– 2.1%)). After a ≥ 7 week delay in undertaking surgery following SARS-CoV-2 infection, patients with ongoing symptoms had a higher mortality than patients whose symptoms had resolved or who had been asymptomatic (6.0% (95%CI 3.2–8.7) vs. 2.4% (95%CI 1.4–3.4) vs. 1.3% (95%CI 0.6–2.0%), respectively). Where possible, surgery should be delayed for at least 7 weeks following SARS-CoV-2 infection. Patients with ongoing symptoms ≥ 7 weeks from diagnosis may benefit from further delay

Mortality and pulmonary complications in patients undergoing surgery with perioperative SARS-CoV-2 infection: an international cohort study

Background: The impact of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) on postoperative recovery needs to be understood to inform clinical decision making during and after the COVID-19 pandemic. This study reports 30-day mortality and pulmonary complication rates in patients with perioperative SARS-CoV-2 infection. Methods: This international, multicentre, cohort study at 235 hospitals in 24 countries included all patients undergoing surgery who had SARS-CoV-2 infection confirmed within 7 days before or 30 days after surgery. The primary outcome measure was 30-day postoperative mortality and was assessed in all enrolled patients. The main secondary outcome measure was pulmonary complications, defined as pneumonia, acute respiratory distress syndrome, or unexpected postoperative ventilation. Findings: This analysis includes 1128 patients who had surgery between Jan 1 and March 31, 2020, of whom 835 (74·0%) had emergency surgery and 280 (24·8%) had elective surgery. SARS-CoV-2 infection was confirmed preoperatively in 294 (26·1%) patients. 30-day mortality was 23·8% (268 of 1128). Pulmonary complications occurred in 577 (51·2%) of 1128 patients; 30-day mortality in these patients was 38·0% (219 of 577), accounting for 81·7% (219 of 268) of all deaths. In adjusted analyses, 30-day mortality was associated with male sex (odds ratio 1·75 [95% CI 1·28–2·40], p\textless0·0001), age 70 years or older versus younger than 70 years (2·30 [1·65–3·22], p\textless0·0001), American Society of Anesthesiologists grades 3–5 versus grades 1–2 (2·35 [1·57–3·53], p\textless0·0001), malignant versus benign or obstetric diagnosis (1·55 [1·01–2·39], p=0·046), emergency versus elective surgery (1·67 [1·06–2·63], p=0·026), and major versus minor surgery (1·52 [1·01–2·31], p=0·047). Interpretation: Postoperative pulmonary complications occur in half of patients with perioperative SARS-CoV-2 infection and are associated with high mortality. Thresholds for surgery during the COVID-19 pandemic should be higher than during normal practice, particularly in men aged 70 years and older. Consideration should be given for postponing non-urgent procedures and promoting non-operative treatment to delay or avoid the need for surgery. Funding: National Institute for Health Research (NIHR), Association of Coloproctology of Great Britain and Ireland, Bowel and Cancer Research, Bowel Disease Research Foundation, Association of Upper Gastrointestinal Surgeons, British Association of Surgical Oncology, British Gynaecological Cancer Society, European Society of Coloproctology, NIHR Academy, Sarcoma UK, Vascular Society for Great Britain and Ireland, and Yorkshire Cancer Research

Waste Crime

While many international corporations have benefited from the global economy and distribution of information, globalization has also had serious negative consequences. This important reference work offers students and general readers a critical understanding of how technology, governments, political unrest, war, and economic strife contribute to an increase in global crime. This A\u2013Z encyclopedia covers key people, events, and organizations and includes key documents that will help readers to understand the numerous problems created by the many transnational crimes that are growing in severity and frequency around the world. Entries address perpetrators and their methods; victims; who really profits; and law enforcement responses. In addition to cyber theft and sales of weapons and narcotics, the set provides a detailed look at global crimes not typically covered, such as corruption, fraudulent medicine, illegal sports betting, organ trafficking, maritime piracy, trafficking in cultural property, and wildlife and forest crime. Although some historical events and people are included, the focus is on recent and contemporary topics

Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal

While many international corporations have benefited from the global economy and distribution of information, globalization has also had serious negative consequences. This important reference work offers students and general readers a critical understanding of how technology, governments, political unrest, war, and economic strife contribute to an increase in global crime. This A\u2013Z encyclopedia covers key people, events, and organizations and includes key documents that will help readers to understand the numerous problems created by the many transnational crimes that are growing in severity and frequency around the world. Entries address perpetrators and their methods; victims; who really profits; and law enforcement responses. In addition to cyber theft and sales of weapons and narcotics, the set provides a detailed look at global crimes not typically covered, such as corruption, fraudulent medicine, illegal sports betting, organ trafficking, maritime piracy, trafficking in cultural property, and wildlife and forest crime. Although some historical events and people are included, the focus is on recent and contemporary topics

Innovazione e tradizione: la tecnologia blockchain a tutela della tracciabilita\u300 nel mercato agri-food

Sino ad ora in letteratura non vi sono molti contributi scientifici che associano il tema della blockchain con quello dei prodotti alimentari o con la filiera dell\u2019agribusiness. Non avendo a disposizione una letteratura sufficientemente sviluppata, si e\u300 deciso di effettuare un caso studio esplorativo, interpretandolo attraverso la Knowledge Based Theory. Partendo da queste considerazioni, nel presente elaborato si e\u300 cercato di capire come la blockchain possa influenzare il modello di business di una filiera casearia ed i potenziali impatti sul consumatore finale. In particolare, si e\u300 voluto capire quali fossero gli impatti sulla fiducia inter-intra organizzativa

Methodology: Estimating Illicit Flows of Cigarettes and the Impact of Enabling Factors

Cigarette trafficking is a global and complex crime. In the EU MSs, 40 billion illicit cigarettes are consumed originating from 128 countries spread across five continents. Most of these cigarettes originate from non-EU countries where cigarette prices are low, and there are weaknesses in the law enforcement, control, and regulatory systems. Like cigarette trafficking itself, research on the topic must extend beyond national and regional borders. This transnational dimension calls for an analysis that considers the interaction between multiple countries to reveal, understand, and monitor cigarette trafficking in the EU. In particular, it should account for a wider context including the non-EU countries that are involved in the production, transit and consumption of illicit cigarettes. Only the combination of local and macro-regional perspectives enables the identification of the main factors behind the transnational illicit flows of cigarettes and the designing of effective policies to curb them. In light of these considerations, ITTP NEXUS in Europe and Beyond includes an analysis of the illicit flows of cigarettes moving through EU countries, by also examining the role of and the connections with relevant countries in North Africa, the Middle East, and Central Asia. The project identifies and quantifies these flows and highlights the existing connections within political, legislative and socio-economic frameworks. Through this process, ITTP NEXUS in Europe and Beyond provides an assessment of the enabling factors behind transnational cigarette trafficking. This booklet constitutes the seventh chapter of the ITTP NEXUS in Europe and Beyond Report. It describes the approach applied to estimate the illicit flows of cigarettes and to identify and analyse their enabling factors. The approach comprises three phases: 1. Estimating the volume of the illicit markets of cigarettes in the 57 countries included in the analysis; 2. Mapping the network of transnational illicit flows of cigarettes; 3. Identifying the impact of contextual factors on illicit flows of cigarettes. Each section of the booklet focuses on one of the phases. Information is provided on how the quantitative data and qualitative information are exploited in each phase